Lithium carbonate

Last updated
Lithium carbonate
Lithium-carbonate-xtal-1979-Mercury-3D-sf.png
2.svg Li+.svg Carbonat-Ion.svg
Lithium carbonate A.jpg
Names
IUPAC name
Lithium carbonate
Other names
Dilithium carbonate, Carbolith, Cibalith-S, Duralith, Eskalith, Lithane, Lithizine, Lithobid, Lithonate, Lithotabs Priadel, Zabuyelite
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.008.239 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
KEGG
PubChem CID
RTECS number
  • OJ5800000
UNII
  • InChI=1S/CH2O3.2Li/c2-1(3)4;;/h(H2,2,3,4);;/q;2*+1/p-2 Yes check.svgY
    Key: XGZVUEUWXADBQD-UHFFFAOYSA-L Yes check.svgY
  • InChI=1/CH2O3.2Li/c2-1(3)4;;/h(H2,2,3,4);;/q;2*+1/p-2
    Key: XGZVUEUWXADBQD-NUQVWONBAY
  • [Li+].[Li+].[O-]C([O-])=O
Properties
Li
2CO
3
Molar mass 73.89 g/mol
AppearanceOdorless white powder
Density 2.11 g/cm3
Melting point 723 °C (1,333 °F; 996 K)
Boiling point 1,310 °C (2,390 °F; 1,580 K)
Decomposes from ~1300 °C
  • 1.54 g/100 mL (0 °C)
  • 1.43 g/100 mL (10 °C)
  • 1.29 g/100 mL (25 °C)
  • 1.08 g/100 mL (40 °C)
  • 0.69 g/100 mL (100 °C) [1]
8.15×10−4 [2]
Solubility Insoluble in acetone, ammonia, alcohol [3]
−27.0·10−6 cm3/mol
1.428 [4]
Viscosity
  • 4.64 cP (777 °C)
  • 3.36 cP (817 °C) [3]
Thermochemistry
97.4 J/mol·K [3]
Std molar
entropy (S⦵298)
90.37 J/mol·K [3]
−1215.6 kJ/mol [3]
−1132.4 kJ/mol [3]
Hazards
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH):
Main hazards
Irritant
GHS labelling:
GHS-pictogram-exclam.svg [5]
Warning
H302, H319 [5]
P305+P351+P338 [5]
Flash point Non-flammable
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
525 mg/kg (oral, rat) [6]
Safety data sheet (SDS) ICSC 1109
Related compounds
Other cations
Sodium carbonate
Potassium carbonate
Rubidium carbonate
Caesium carbonate
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
X mark.svgN  verify  (what is  Yes check.svgYX mark.svgN ?)

Lithium carbonate is an inorganic compound, the lithium salt of carbonic acid with the formula Li
2CO
3. This white salt is widely used in processing metal oxides. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines [7] for its efficacy in the treatment of mood disorders such as bipolar disorder. [8] [7]

Contents

Uses

Lithium carbonate is an important industrial chemical. Its main use is as a precursor to compounds used in lithium-ion batteries.

Glasses derived from lithium carbonate are useful in ovenware. Lithium carbonate is a common ingredient in both low-fire and high-fire ceramic glaze. It forms low-melting fluxes with silica and other materials. Its alkaline properties are conducive to changing the state of metal oxide colorants in glaze, particularly red iron oxide (Fe
2O
3). Cement sets more rapidly when prepared with lithium carbonate, and is useful for tile adhesives. When added to aluminium trifluoride, it forms LiF which yields a superior electrolyte for the processing of aluminium. [9]

Rechargeable batteries

Lithium carbonate-derived compounds are crucial to lithium-ion batteries. Lithium carbonate may be converted into lithium hydroxide as an intermediate. In practice, two components of the battery are made with lithium compounds: the cathode and the electrolyte. The electrolyte is a solution of lithium hexafluorophosphate, while the cathode uses one of several lithiated structures, the most popular of which are lithium cobalt oxide and lithium iron phosphate.

Lithium prices Lithium prices.webp
Lithium prices

Medical uses

In 1843, lithium carbonate was used to treat stones in the bladder. In 1859, some doctors recommended a therapy with lithium salts for a number of ailments, including gout, urinary calculi, rheumatism, mania, depression, and headache.

In 1948, John Cade discovered the anti-manic effects of lithium ions. [10] This finding led to lithium carbonate's use as a psychiatric medication to treat mania, the elevated phase of bipolar disorder. Prescription lithium carbonate from a pharmacy is suitable for use as medicine in humans but industrial lithium carbonate is not since it may contain unsafe levels of toxic heavy metals or other toxicants. After ingestion, lithium carbonate is dissociated into pharmacologically active lithium ions (Li+) and (non-therapeutic) carbonate, with 300  mg of lithium carbonate containing approximately 8  mEq (8  mmol) of lithium ion. [8] According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 300–600 mg of lithium carbonate taken two to three times daily is typical for maintenance of bipolar I disorder in adults, [8] where the exact dose given varies depending on factors such as the patient's serum lithium concentrations, which must be closely monitored by a physician to avoid lithium toxicity and potential kidney damage (or even kidney failure) from lithium-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. [11] [8] Dehydration and certain drugs, including NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, can increase serum lithium concentrations to unsafe levels whereas other drugs, such as caffeine, may decrease concentrations. In contrast to the elemental ions sodium, potassium, and calcium, there is no known cellular mechanism specifically dedicated to regulating intracellular lithium. Lithium can enter cells through epithelial sodium channels. [12] Lithium ions interfere with ion transport processes (see "Sodium pump") that relay and amplify messages carried to the cells of the brain. [13] Mania is associated with irregular increases in protein kinase C (PKC) activity within the brain. Lithium carbonate and sodium valproate, another drug traditionally used to treat the disorder, act in the brain by inhibiting PKC's activity and help to produce other compounds that also inhibit the PKC. [14] Lithium carbonate's mood-controlling properties are not fully understood. [15]

Health risks

Taking lithium salts has risks and side effects. Extended use of lithium to treat mental disorders has been known to lead to acquired nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. [16] Lithium intoxication can affect the central nervous system and renal system and can be lethal. [17] Over a prolonged period, lithium can accumulate in the principal cells of the collecting duct and interfere with antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which regulates the water permeability of principal cells in the collecting tubule. [12] The medullary interstitium of the collecting duct system naturally has a high sodium concentration and attempts to maintain it. There is no known mechanism for cells to distinguish lithium ions from sodium ions, so damage to the kidney's nephrons may occur if lithium concentrations become too high as a result of dehydration, hyponatremia, an unusually low sodium diet, or certain drugs.

Red pyrotechnic colorant

Lithium carbonate is used to impart a red color to fireworks. [18]

Properties and reactions

Unlike sodium carbonate, which forms at least three hydrates, lithium carbonate exists only in the anhydrous form. Its solubility in water is low relative to other lithium salts. The isolation of lithium from aqueous extracts of lithium ores capitalizes on this poor solubility. Its apparent solubility increases 10-fold under a mild pressure of carbon dioxide; this effect is due to the formation of the metastable lithium bicarbonate, which is more soluble: [9]

Li
2CO
3 + CO
2 + H
2O⇌ 2 LiHCO
3

The extraction of lithium carbonate at high pressures of CO
2 and its precipitation upon depressurizing is the basis of the Quebec process.

Lithium carbonate can also be purified by exploiting its diminished solubility in hot water. Thus, heating a saturated aqueous solution causes crystallization of Li
2CO
3. [19]

Lithium carbonate, and other carbonates of group 1, do not decarboxylate readily. Li
2CO
3 decomposes at temperatures around 1300 °C.

Production

Lithium is extracted from primarily two sources: spodumene in pegmatite deposits, and lithium salts in underground brine pools. About 82,000 tons were produced in 2020, showing significant and consistent growth. [20]

From underground brine reservoirs

In the Salar de Atacama in the Atacama desert of Northern Chile, lithium carbonate and hydroxide are produced from brine. [21] [22]

The process pumps lithium rich brine from below ground into shallow pans for evaporation. The brine contains many different dissolved ions, and as their concentration increases, salts precipitate out of solution and sink. The remaining supernatant liquid is used for the next step. The sequence of pans may vary depending on the concentration of ions in a particular source of brine.

In the first pan, halite (sodium chloride or common salt) crystallises. This has little economic value and is discarded. The supernatant, with ever increasing concentration of dissolved solids, is transferred successively to the sylvinite (sodium potassium chloride) pan, the carnalite (potassium magnesium chloride) pan and finally a pan designed to maximise the concentration of lithium chloride. The process takes about 15 months. The concentrate (30-35% lithium chloride solution) is trucked to Salar del Carmen. There, boron and magnesium are removed (typically residual boron is removed by solvent extraction and/or ion exchange and magnesium by raising the pH above 10 with sodium hydroxide) [23] then in the final step, by addition of sodium carbonate, the desired lithium carbonate is precipitated out, separated, and processed.

Some of the by-products from the evaporation process may also have economic value.

There is considerable attention to the use of water in this water poor region. SQM commissioned a life-cycle analysis (LCA) which concluded that water consumption for SQM's lithium hydroxide and carbonate is significantly lower than the average consumption by production from the main ore-based process, using spodumene. A more general LCA suggests the opposite for extraction from reservoirs. [24]

The majority of brine based production is in the "lithium triangle" in South America.

From "geothermal" brine

A potential source of lithium is the leachates of geothermal wells, carried to the surface. [25] Recovery of lithium has been demonstrated in the field; the lithium is separated by simple precipitation and filtration. [26] The process and environmental costs are primarily those of the already-operating well; net environmental impacts may thus be positive. [27]

The brine of United Downs Deep Geothermal Power project near Redruth is claimed by Cornish Lithium to be valuable due to its high lithium concentration (220 mg/L) with low magnesium (<5 mg/L) and total dissolved solids content of <29g/L, [28] and a flow rate of 40-60l/s. [24]

From ore

α-spodumene is roasted at 1100 °C for 1h to make β-spodumene, then roasted at 250 °C for 10 minutes with sulphuric acid. [29] [21]

As of 2020, Australia was the world's largest producer of lithium intermediates, [30] all based on spodumene.

In recent years mining companies have begun exploration of lithium projects throughout North America, South America and Australia to identify economic deposits that can potentially bring new supplies of lithium carbonate online to meet the growing demand for the product. [31]

From clay

In 2020 Tesla Motors announced a revolutionary process to extract lithium from clay in Nevada using only salt and no acid. This was met with scepticism. [32]

From end-of-life batteries

A few small companies are recycling spent batteries, focusing on recovering copper and cobalt. Some recover lithium carbonate alongside the compound Li2Al4(CO3)(OH)12⋅3H2O also. [33] [34] [35] [36]

Other

In April 2017 MGX Minerals reported it had received independent confirmation of its rapid lithium extraction process to recover lithium and other valuable minerals from oil and gas wastewater brine. [37]

Electrodialysis has been proposed to extract lithium from seawater, but it is not commercially viable. [38]

Natural occurrence

Natural lithium carbonate is known as zabuyelite. [39] This mineral is connected with deposits of some salt lakes and some pegmatites. [40]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alkali metal</span> Group of highly reactive chemical elements

The alkali metals consist of the chemical elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). Together with hydrogen they constitute group 1, which lies in the s-block of the periodic table. All alkali metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital: this shared electron configuration results in their having very similar characteristic properties. Indeed, the alkali metals provide the best example of group trends in properties in the periodic table, with elements exhibiting well-characterised homologous behaviour. This family of elements is also known as the lithium family after its leading element.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydroxide</span> Chemical compound

Hydroxide is a diatomic anion with chemical formula OH−. It consists of an oxygen and hydrogen atom held together by a single covalent bond, and carries a negative electric charge. It is an important but usually minor constituent of water. It functions as a base, a ligand, a nucleophile, and a catalyst. The hydroxide ion forms salts, some of which dissociate in aqueous solution, liberating solvated hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is a multi-million-ton per annum commodity chemical. The corresponding electrically neutral compound HO• is the hydroxyl radical. The corresponding covalently bound group –OH of atoms is the hydroxy group. Both the hydroxide ion and hydroxy group are nucleophiles and can act as catalysts in organic chemistry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium</span> Chemical element, symbol Li and atomic number 3

Lithium is a chemical element; it has symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal. Under standard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the least dense solid element. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive and flammable, and must be stored in vacuum, inert atmosphere, or inert liquid such as purified kerosene or mineral oil. It exhibits a metallic luster. It corrodes quickly in air to a dull silvery gray, then black tarnish. It does not occur freely in nature, but occurs mainly as pegmatitic minerals, which were once the main source of lithium. Due to its solubility as an ion, it is present in ocean water and is commonly obtained from brines. Lithium metal is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.

The term chloride refers to a compound or molecule that contains either a chlorine ion, which is a negatively charged chlorine atom, or a non-charged chlorine atom covalently bonded to the rest of the molecule by a single bond. Many inorganic chlorides are salts. Many organic compounds are chlorides. The pronunciation of the word "chloride" is.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium chloride</span> Chemical compound with formula NaCl

Sodium chloride, commonly known as edible salt, is an ionic compound with the chemical formula NaCl, representing a 1:1 ratio of sodium and chlorine ions. It is transparent or translucent, brittle, hygroscopic, and occurs as the mineral halite. In its edible form, it is commonly used as a condiment and food preservative. Large quantities of sodium chloride are used in many industrial processes, and it is a major source of sodium and chlorine compounds used as feedstocks for further chemical syntheses. Another major application of sodium chloride is deicing of roadways in sub-freezing weather.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Base (chemistry)</span> Type of chemical substance

In chemistry, there are three definitions in common use of the word "base": Arrhenius bases, Brønsted bases, and Lewis bases. All definitions agree that bases are substances that react with acids, as originally proposed by G.-F. Rouelle in the mid-18th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium carbonate</span> Chemical compound

Sodium carbonate is the inorganic compound with the formula Na2CO3 and its various hydrates. All forms are white, odourless, water-soluble salts that yield alkaline solutions in water. Historically, it was extracted from the ashes of plants grown in sodium-rich soils, and because the ashes of these sodium-rich plants were noticeably different from ashes of wood, sodium carbonate became known as "soda ash". It is produced in large quantities from sodium chloride and limestone by the Solvay process, as well as by carbonating sodium hydroxide which is made using the Chlor-alkali process.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spodumene</span> Pyroxene, inosilicate mineral rich in lithium

Spodumene is a pyroxene mineral consisting of lithium aluminium inosilicate, LiAl(SiO3)2, and is a commercially important source of lithium. It occurs as colorless to yellowish, purplish, or lilac kunzite (see below), yellowish-green or emerald-green hiddenite, prismatic crystals, often of great size. Single crystals of 14.3 m (47 ft) in size are reported from the Black Hills of South Dakota, United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium hydroxide</span> Chemical compound

Lithium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula LiOH. It can exist as anhydrous or hydrated, and both forms are white hygroscopic solids. They are soluble in water and slightly soluble in ethanol. Both are available commercially. While classified as a strong base, lithium hydroxide is the weakest known alkali metal hydroxide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barium chloride</span> Chemical compound

Barium chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula BaCl2. It is one of the most common water-soluble salts of barium. Like most other water-soluble barium salts, it is a white powder, highly toxic, and imparts a yellow-green coloration to a flame. It is also hygroscopic, converting to the dihydrate BaCl2·2H2O, which are colourless crystals with a bitter salty taste. It has limited use in the laboratory and industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium chloride</span> Chemical compound

Lithium chloride is a chemical compound with the formula LiCl. The salt is a typical ionic compound (with certain covalent characteristics), although the small size of the Li+ ion gives rise to properties not seen for other alkali metal chlorides, such as extraordinary solubility in polar solvents (83.05 g/100 mL of water at 20 °C) and its hygroscopic properties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water softening</span> Removing positive ions from hard water

Water softening is the removal of calcium, magnesium, and certain other metal cations in hard water. The resulting soft water requires less soap for the same cleaning effort, as soap is not wasted bonding with calcium ions. Soft water also extends the lifetime of plumbing by reducing or eliminating scale build-up in pipes and fittings. Water softening is usually achieved using lime softening or ion-exchange resins, but is increasingly being accomplished using nanofiltration or reverse osmosis membranes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ion exchange</span> Exchange of ions between an electrolyte solution and a solid

Ion exchange is a reversible interchange of one species of ion present in an insoluble solid with another of like charge present in a solution surrounding the solid. Ion exchange is used in softening or demineralizing of water, purification of chemicals, and separation of substances.

A bromide ion is the negatively charged form (Br−) of the element bromine, a member of the halogens group on the periodic table. Most bromides are colorless. Bromides have many practical roles, being found in anticonvulsants, flame-retardant materials, and cell stains. Although uncommon, chronic toxicity from bromide can result in bromism, a syndrome with multiple neurological symptoms. Bromide toxicity can also cause a type of skin eruption, see potassium bromide. The bromide ion has an ionic radius of 196 pm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium sulfate</span> Chemical compound

Lithium sulfate is a white inorganic salt with the formula Li2SO4. It is the lithium salt of sulfuric acid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sociedad Química y Minera</span> Chilean chemical company and lithium producer

Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile (SQM) is a Chilean chemical company and a supplier of plant nutrients, iodine, lithium and industrial chemicals. It is the world's biggest lithium producer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethylene carbonate</span> Chemical compound

Ethylene carbonate (sometimes abbreviated EC) is the organic compound with the formula (CH2O)2CO. It is classified as the cyclic carbonate ester of ethylene glycol and carbonic acid. At room temperature (25 °C) ethylene carbonate is a transparent crystalline solid, practically odorless and colorless, and somewhat soluble in water. In the liquid state (m.p. 34-37 °C) it is a colorless odorless liquid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alkali soil</span> Soil type with pH > 8.5

Alkali, or Alkaline, soils are clay soils with high pH, a poor soil structure and a low infiltration capacity. Often they have a hard calcareous layer at 0.5 to 1 metre depth. Alkali soils owe their unfavorable physico-chemical properties mainly to the dominating presence of sodium carbonate, which causes the soil to swell and difficult to clarify/settle. They derive their name from the alkali metal group of elements, to which sodium belongs, and which can induce basicity. Sometimes these soils are also referred to as alkaline sodic soils. Alkaline soils are basic, but not all basic soils are alkaline.

Brine mining is the extraction of useful materials which are naturally dissolved in brine. The brine may be seawater, other surface water, groundwater, or hyper-saline solutions from several industries. It differs from solution mining or in-situ leaching in that those methods inject water or chemicals to dissolve materials which are in a solid state; in brine mining, the materials are already dissolved.

Lithium Valley is an area adjacent to the Salton Sea in Southern California, United States, with enormous deposits of lithium. Due to increased demand for lithium, which is crucial component for batteries used for electric cars and energy storage, the area is attracting attention, and the extraction of lithium is expected to boost the economy of Imperial County. The area is exceptionally well-suited due to the ability to mine the lithium while generating geothermal power. There are already 11 geothermal power plants utilizing the Salton Sea Geothermal Field.

References

  1. ↑ Seidell, Atherton; Linke, William F. (1952). Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Compounds. Van Nostrand.
  2. ↑ John Rumble (June 18, 2018). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (99 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 5–188. ISBN   978-1-138-56163-2.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "lithium carbonate". Chemister.ru. 2007-03-19. Retrieved 2017-01-02.
  4. ↑ Pradyot Patnaik. Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. McGraw-Hill, 2002, ISBN   0-07-049439-8
  5. 1 2 3 Sigma-Aldrich Co., Lithium carbonate. Retrieved on 2014-06-03.
  6. ↑ Michael Chambers. "ChemIDplus - 554-13-2 - XGZVUEUWXADBQD-UHFFFAOYSA-L - Lithium carbonate [USAN:USP:JAN] - Similar structures search, synonyms, formulas, resource links, and other chemical information". Chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2017-01-02.
  7. 1 2 World Health Organization (2023). The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl: 10665/371090 . WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02.
  8. 1 2 3 4 "Lithium Carbonate Medication Guide" (PDF). U.S. FDA. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
  9. 1 2 Ulrich Wietelmann; Richard J. Bauer (2005). "Lithium and Lithium Compounds". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a15_393. ISBN   3-527-30673-0.
  10. ↑ Cade, J. F. (2000). "Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement. 1949". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 78 (4): 518–520. ISSN   0042-9686. PMC   2560740 . PMID   10885180.
  11. ↑ Amdisen A. (1978). "Clinical and serum level monitoring in lithium therapy and lithium intoxication". J. Anal. Toxicol. 2 (5): 193–202. doi:10.1093/jat/2.5.193.
  12. 1 2 Lerma, Edgar V. "Renal toxicity of lithium". UpToDate . Retrieved 8 March 2022.
  13. ↑ "lithium, Lithobid: Drug Facts, Side Effects and Dosing". Medicinenet.com. 2016-06-17. Retrieved 2017-01-02.
  14. ↑ Yildiz, A; Guleryuz, S; Ankerst, DP; Ongür, D; Renshaw, PF (2008). "Protein kinase C inhibition in the treatment of mania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of tamoxifen" (PDF). Archives of General Psychiatry. 65 (3): 255–63. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.43 . PMID   18316672.[ permanent dead link ]
  15. ↑ Lithium Carbonate at PubChem
  16. ↑ Richard T. Timmer; Jeff M. Sands (1999-03-01). "Lithium Intoxication". Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 10 (3): 666–674. doi: 10.1681/ASN.V103666 . PMID   10073618 . Retrieved 2017-01-02.
  17. ↑ Simard, M; Gumbiner, B; Lee, A; Lewis, H; Norman, D (1989). "Lithium carbonate intoxication. A case report and review of the literature" (PDF). Archives of Internal Medicine. 149 (1): 36–46. doi:10.1001/archinte.149.1.36. PMID   2492186. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-26. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
  18. ↑ "Chemistry of Fireworks".
  19. ↑ Caley, E. R.; Elving, P. J. (1939). "Purification of Lithium Carbonate". Inorganic Syntheses. Vol. 1. pp. 1–2. doi:10.1002/9780470132326.ch1. ISBN   978-0-470-13232-6.
  20. ↑ "Global lithium production 2020".
  21. 1 2 "Sustainability of lithium production in Chile" (PDF). SQM. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  22. ↑ Telsnig, Thomas; Potz, Christian; Haas, Jannik; Eltrop, Ludger; Palma-Behnke, Rodrigo (2017). Opportunities to integrate solar technologies into the Chilean lithium mining industry – reducing process related GHG emissions of a strategic storage resource. Solarpaces 2016: International Conference on Concentrating Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems. AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol. 1850. p. 110017. Bibcode:2017AIPC.1850k0017T. doi: 10.1063/1.4984491 .
  23. ↑ Dry, Mike. "Extraction of Lithium from Brine – Old and New Chemistry" (PDF). Critical Materials Symposium, EXTRACTION 2018, Ottawa, August 26–29. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
  24. 1 2 Early, Catherine (25 Nov 2020). "The new 'gold rush' for green lithium". Future Planet. BBC. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  25. ↑ Parker, Ann. Mining Geothermal Resources Archived 17 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine . Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
  26. ↑ Patel, P. (16 November 2011) Startup to Capture Lithium from Geothermal Plants. technologyreview.com
  27. ↑ Wald, M. (28 September 2011) Start-Up in California Plans to Capture Lithium, and Market Share Archived 8 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine . The New York Times
  28. ↑ "Cornish Lithium Releases Globally Significant Lithium Grades". Cornish Lithium. 17 September 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
  29. ↑ Meshram, Pratima; Pandey, B. D.; Mankhand, T. R. (1 December 2014). "Extraction of lithium from primary and secondary sources by pre-treatment, leaching and separation: A comprehensive review". Hydrometallurgy. 150: 192–208. Bibcode:2014HydMe.150..192M. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2014.10.012 . Retrieved 2 Dec 2020.
  30. ↑ Jaskula, Brian W. (January 2020). "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
  31. ↑ "Junior mining companies exploring for lithium". www.juniorminingnetwork.com. Archived from the original on 2017-03-31. Retrieved 2017-03-30.
  32. ↑ Scheyder, Ernest (24 Sep 2020). "Tesla's Nevada lithium plan faces stark obstacles on path to production". Reuters. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
  33. ↑ Serna-Guerrero, Rodrigo (5 November 2019). "A Critical Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes from a Circular Economy Perspective". Batteries. 5 (4): 68. doi: 10.3390/batteries5040068 .
  34. ↑ Dolotko, Oleksandr; Gehrke, Niclas; Malliaridou, Triantafillia; Sieweck, Raphael; Herrmann, Laura; Hunzinger, Bettina; Knapp, Michael; Ehrenberg, Helmut (March 28, 2023). "Universal and efficient extraction of lithium for lithium-ion battery recycling using mechanochemistry". Communications Chemistry. 6 (1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 49. doi:10.1038/s42004-023-00844-2. ISSN   2399-3669. PMC   10049983 . PMID   36977798.
  35. ↑ Kropachev, Andrey; Kalabskiy, Igor (2020). "Hydrometallurgical preparation of lithium aluminum carbonate hydroxide hydrate, Li2Al4(CO3)(OH)12·3H2O from aluminate solution". Minerals Engineering. 155. Elsevier BV: 106470. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2020.106470. ISSN   0892-6875.
  36. ↑ Dave Borlace (15 May 2023). Battery recycling just got a whole lot better (YouTube video). London: Just Have a Think. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  37. ↑ "MGX Minerals Receives Independent Confirmation of Rapid Lithium Extraction Process". www.juniorminingnetwork.com. 20 April 2017. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
  38. ↑ Martin, Richard (2015-06-08). "Quest to Mine Seawater for Lithium Advances". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
  39. ↑ David Barthelmy. "Zabuyelite Mineral Data". Mineralogy Database. Retrieved 2010-02-07.
  40. ↑ mindat.org
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.