Anopheles dirus

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Anopheles dirus
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Culicidae
Genus: Anopheles
Subgenus: Cellia
(unranked): Neomyzomyia
Species group: Leucosphyrus group
Species subgroup: Leucosphyrus subgroup
Species complex: Dirus species complex
Peyton & Harrison, 1979
Species [1]
Anopheles-range-map.png
range map for Anopheles spp.. Anopheles dirus is in cyan in Southeast Asia

Anopheles dirus is a vector of malaria in Asian forested zones. [2]

Contents

Taxonomy

It is often seen as a species complex including at least seven [3] [4] closely related and efficient forest-based malaria vectors in Asia. Hence, its geographical distribution is overlapping with areas of high malaria prevalence rates and the occurrence of drug resistant Plasmodium falciparum. [5] P. falciparum is one of the four main protozoan parasites that cause malaria and is one of the leading causes of malaria deaths. This species complex is of high medical importance for malaria control, in view of the biological specificities of the members of this complex. Sympatric sibling species of the complex differ in types of larval habitat, seasonality and behaviour. These differences also exist within the species suggesting the role of environmental factors in determining these. [2]

Distribution

The complex has been reported mainly from Northeast India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand. [3] It has also been reported from other areas in India such as Jammu & Kashmir [6] and Andaman Islands. [7] One of the species in the complex has also been reported from Shimoga in South India although its vectorial status is unknown. [3] GIS-based predictive habitat modelling has revealed that over half of several Northeast Indian states, whole of Thailand and nearly a third of large areas in South Indian states like Kerala and Goa could harbour this complex. [8]

Hosts

Hosts include cattle. [9]

Control

Insecticide resistance is an increasing concern in southeast Asia. [9] Although ivermectin is thought of as solely an endoparasiticide, it has proven effective as an endectocide against An. dirus. [9] Cramer et al 2021 use zooprophylaxis-aided ivermectin-based vector elimination (ZAIVE), injecting cattle with the antiparasitic and getting at least 30 days of increased mortality in this species and An. epiroticus . [9]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malaria</span> Mosquito-borne infectious disease

Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects vertebrates. Human malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, fatigue, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. Symptoms usually begin 10 to 15 days after being bitten by an infected Anopheles mosquito. If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later. In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms. This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria.

<i>Anopheles</i> Genus of mosquito

Anopheles is a genus of mosquito first described by J. W. Meigen in 1818, and are known as nail mosquitoes and marsh mosquitoes. Many such mosquitoes are vectors of the parasite Plasmodium, a genus of protozoans that cause malaria in birds, reptiles, and mammals, including humans. The Anopheles gambiae mosquito is the best-known species of marsh mosquito that transmits the Plasmodium falciparum, which is a malarial parasite deadly to human beings; no other mosquito genus is a vector of human malaria.

<i>Plasmodium falciparum</i> Protozoan species of malaria parasite

Plasmodium falciparum is a unicellular protozoan parasite of humans, and the deadliest species of Plasmodium that causes malaria in humans. The parasite is transmitted through the bite of a female Anopheles mosquito and causes the disease's most dangerous form, falciparum malaria. It is responsible for around 50% of all malaria cases. P. falciparum is therefore regarded as the deadliest parasite in humans. It is also associated with the development of blood cancer and is classified as a Group 2A (probable) carcinogen.

<i>Plasmodium ovale</i> Species of single-celled organism

Plasmodium ovale is a species of parasitic protozoon that causes tertian malaria in humans. It is one of several species of Plasmodium parasites that infect humans, including Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax which are responsible for most cases of malaria in the world. P. ovale is rare compared to these two parasites, and substantially less dangerous than P. falciparum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mosquito net</span> Fine net used to exclude mosquitos and other biting insects

A mosquito net is a type of meshed curtain that is circumferentially draped over a bed or a sleeping area, to offer the sleeper barrier protection against bites and stings from mosquitos, flies, and other pest insects, and thus against the diseases they may carry. Examples of such preventable insect-borne diseases include malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, zika virus, Chagas disease and various forms of encephalitis, including the West Nile virus.

<i>Anopheles gambiae</i> Species of mosquito

The Anopheles gambiae complex consists of at least seven morphologically indistinguishable species of mosquitoes in the genus Anopheles. The complex was recognised in the 1960s and includes the most important vectors of malaria in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly of the most dangerous malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. It is one of the most efficient malaria vectors known. The An. gambiae mosquito additionally transmits Wuchereria bancrofti which causes lymphatic filariasis, a symptom of which is elephantiasis.

The Anopheles latens mosquito is an important vector for the transmission of malaria in humans and monkeys in Southeast Asia. It is an important vector for the transmission of human malaria in Sarawak; but because it is attracted to both humans and to macaques it is also responsible for the transmission of simian malarias to humans.

Plasmodium eylesi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Plasmodium.

Avian malaria is a parasitic disease of birds, caused by parasite species belonging to the genera Plasmodium and Hemoproteus. The disease is transmitted by a dipteran vector including mosquitoes in the case of Plasmodium parasites and biting midges for Hemoproteus. The range of symptoms and effects of the parasite on its bird hosts is very wide, from asymptomatic cases to drastic population declines due to the disease, as is the case of the Hawaiian honeycreepers. The diversity of parasites is large, as it is estimated that there are approximately as many parasites as there are species of hosts. As research on human malaria parasites became difficult, Dr. Ross studied avian malaria parasites. Co-speciation and host switching events have contributed to the broad range of hosts that these parasites can infect, causing avian malaria to be a widespread global disease, found everywhere except Antarctica.

Anopheles (Cellia) subpictus is a species complex of four species of mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles.

<i>Anopheles stephensi</i> Species of fly

Anopheles stephensi is a primary mosquito vector of malaria in urban India and is included in the same subgenus as Anopheles gambiae, the primary malaria vector in Africa. A. gambiae consists of a complex of morphologically identical species of mosquitoes, along with all other major malaria vectors; however, A. stephensi has not yet been included in any of these complexes. Nevertheless, two races of A. stephensi exist based on differences in egg dimensions and the number of ridges on the eggs; A. s. stephensisensu stricto, the type form, is a competent malaria vector that takes place in urban areas, and A. s. mysorensis, the variety form, exists in rural areas and exhibits considerable zoophilic behaviour, making it a poor malaria vector. However, A. s. mysorensis is a detrimental vector in Iran. An intermediate form also exists in rural communities and peri-urban areas, though its vector status is unknown. About 12% of malaria cases in India are due to A. stephensi.

The mainstay of malaria diagnosis has been the microscopic examination of blood, utilizing blood films. Although blood is the sample most frequently used to make a diagnosis, both saliva and urine have been investigated as alternative, less invasive specimens. More recently, modern techniques utilizing antigen tests or polymerase chain reaction have been discovered, though these are not widely implemented in malaria endemic regions. Areas that cannot afford laboratory diagnostic tests often use only a history of subjective fever as the indication to treat for malaria.

<i>Anopheles darlingi</i> Species of fly

Anopheles darlingi, the American malaria mosquito, is a species of mosquito in the family Culicidae. A. darlingi is one of the major species of mosquito known to be responsible for malaria in the Amazonian regions. It has a wide range of geographic distribution that stretches from Mexico and Argentina but it has also been found to populate in areas affected by deforestation and environment changes due to humans.

Plasmodium coatneyi is a parasitic species that is an agent of malaria in nonhuman primates. P. coatneyi occurs in Southeast Asia. The natural host of this species is the rhesus macaque and crab-eating macaque, but there has been no evidence that zoonosis of P. coatneyi can occur through its vector, the female Anopheles mosquito.

<i>Anopheles sinensis</i> Species of mosquito

Anopheles sinensis is a species of mosquito that transmits malaria as well as lymphatic filariasis. It is regarded as the most important vector of these human parasitic diseases in Southeast Asia. It is the primary vector of vivax malaria in many regions. In China it also transmits the filalarial parasite, and arthropod roundworm. In Japan it is also a vector of a roundworm Setaria digitata in sheep and goats.

Anopheles nili is a species of mosquito in the Culicidae family. It comprises the following elements: An. carnevalei, An. nili, An. ovengensis and An. somalicus. The scientific name of this species was first published in 1904 by Theobald. It is the main mosquito species found in the south Cameroon forest zone which bites humans. It is known as a problematic carrier of malaria, although newly discovered, closely related species in the same genus have also been found to interact with A. nili as a disease vector. In that, they both have similar feeding habits on local targets in the Cameroon region.

<i>Anopheles barbirostris</i> Species of fly

Anopheles barbirostris is a species complex of mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles. Larvae found in clean, lotic bodies of water. Females are zoophilic, mainly feed blood on cattle and humans. It is also an important vector for Plasmodium falciparum in Sri Lanka and Timor, for both Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum in Bangladesh.

Anopheles (Cellia) karwari is a species complex of zoophilic mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles. It is found in India, and Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Sumatra, and Java. A. karwari is a member of the Maculatus Group and the second scarcest species reported from Indonesia. Female is blood sucking and involved in transmitting Plasmodium falciparum, thus an important malarial vector. It is considered a secondary vector in the Australian region, but its vectorial status in South-East Asia was unknown.

Anopheles (Cellia) vagus is a species complex of zoophilic mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles. It is found in India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia. It is a potential natural vector of malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum, and Japanese encephalitis virus. It is highly susceptible to insecticide deltamethrin and resistant to DDT.

References

  1. Sallum MA, Peyton EL,& Wilkerson RC. 2005. Six new species of the Anopheles leucosphyrus group, reinterpretation of An. elegans and vector implications. Med. Vet. Entomol.,19, 158–199.
  2. 1 2 Obsomer, Valerie; Defourny, Pierre; Coosemans, Marc (2007). "The Anopheles dirus complex: spatial distribution and environmental drivers". Malaria Journal. 6 (26): 1474–2875. doi: 10.1186/1475-2875-6-26 . PMC   1838916 . PMID   17341297.
  3. 1 2 3 Dash AP, Adak, T., Raghavendra, K., Singh, OP. (2007) The biology and control of malaria vectors in India. Current Science 92(11). p.1574 PDF.
  4. Peyton EL. 1989. A new classification for the Leucosphyrus group of Anopheles (Cellia). Mosq. Syst. 21:197–205.
  5. Yang TH (1983) A review of literature on Anopheles balabacensis balabacensis. World Health Organization. WHO/MAL/83.999, WHO/MAL/83.873M.
  6. Nair, C. P., J. Commun. Dis., 1973, 5, 22–46.
  7. Covell, G., Report of an inquiry into malaria condition in the Andamans, Govt. Press, Delhi, 1927.
  8. Srivastava, Aruna; Nagpal, B. N.; Saxena, Rekha; Subbarao, S. K. (10 May 2001). "Predictive habitat modelling for forest malaria vector species An. dirus in India – A GIS-based approach" (PDF). Current Science. 80 (9): 1129–34. Retrieved 16 June 2009.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Ahmad, Sundus Shafat; Rahi, Manju; Saroha, Poonam; Sharma, Amit (10 January 2022). "Ivermectin". Parasites & Vectors . 15 (1). BioMed Central: 20. doi: 10.1186/s13071-021-05124-3 . ISSN   1756-3305. PMC   8744265 . PMID   35012612.