Berghia stephanieae

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Berghia stephanieae
Berghia stephanieae 18.png
Dorsal view of Berghia stephanieae.
Aeolidiella stephanieae.png
Dorsal view of Berghia stephanieae. Scale bar is 100 μm.
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Gastropoda
Subclass: Heterobranchia
Order: Nudibranchia
Suborder: Cladobranchia
Family: Aeolidiidae
Genus: Berghia
Species:
B. stephanieae
Binomial name
Berghia stephanieae
(Valdés, 2005) [1]

Berghia stephanieae is a species of sea slug, an aeolid nudibranch. It is a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Aeolidiidae. [2] It was previously known as Aeolidiella stephanieae. [3]

Contents

Distribution

The range of this species is from the most northern point 25.7°N, to the most southern 25.09°N, and from the most western 80.44°W, to the most eastern 80.2°W. [4]

This is one of the most commonly sold aeolid nudibranchs in the marine aquarium trade in North America, [5] because it is used to control the sea anemone Aiptasia . [5]

Description

The size of the body of this species is up to 20 mm. [4]

Ecology

This sea slug lives in shallow waters from 1 to 2 m in depth. [4] It eats anemones from the genus Aiptasia . [5]

Life cycle

Berghia stephanieae laying eggs in an aquarium. Berghia stephanieae laying eggs in an aquarium.jpg
Berghia stephanieae laying eggs in an aquarium.

The development of Berghia stephanieae lasts 60 days at 22 °C. [6] The ontogenetic development of Berghia stephanieae can be subdivided into 8 stages, each recognisable by characteristic morphological and behavioural features as well as specific characters of the nervous system and the muscular system, respectively. The larval nervous system of Berghia stephanieae includes an apical organ, developing central ganglia, and peripheral neurons associated with the velum (a structure used for swimming and particulate food collection), foot and posterior, visceral part of the larva. [6]

In Berghia stephanieae the development is lecithotrophic (feed off a yolk sac). [6] The first pair of cephalic tentacles, the rhinophores, emerge shortly after metamorphosis (30% of development), whereas the second pair, the oral tentacles, appear significantly later in postmetamorphic stages (juvenile stage, 40% of development). [6] The same developmental pattern of cephalic tentacles has been shown in three other nudibranchs, so far ( Adalaria proxima , Cadlina laevis and Melibe leonina ). [6] The settlement and metamorphosis in Berghia stephanieae larvae are not triggered by their future prey, and most likely therefore the rhinophores develop first after metamorphosis in order to be able to locate their diet, sea anemones. [6]

Embryogenesis and larval development

1= 2 h after oviposition (0% of development). Scale bar is 100 mm. zy = zygotes, * (asterisk) = four-celled embryos within the same egg mass, cap = the capsule that surrounds each embryo. Aeolidiella stephanieae 2.png
1= 2 h after oviposition (0% of development). Scale bar is 100 μm.
zy = zygotes, * (asterisk) = four-celled embryos within the same egg mass, cap = the capsule that surrounds each embryo.
Typically the embryos of nudibranchs are enclosed by two membranes, the capsule that surrounds each embryo and another mucoid layer that encases all of the capsules in a gelatinous egg mass. After oviposition the first cleavages proceed quickly (at 1–2 hours after oviposition two-cell stage (0% of development) and at 8 hours after oviposition 16-cell stage (0.5% of development)). The divisions within an egg mass are asynchronous, both four-celled embryos and zygotes can be detected in the same egg mass. [6]

Early veliger stage

The first detectable structures in the early veliger stage (5-10% of development), the larval shell and the ciliated velar lobes, appear at the same time as the first movements of the larvae (rotation around their anterior-posterior axes). [6]

Dorsal view of an early veliger stage larva (5% of development). Scale bar is 100 mm. s = shell, v = ciliated velum, cil = cilia, cap = the capsule that surrounds each embryo. Aeolidiella stephanieae 3.png
Dorsal view of an early veliger stage larva (5% of development). Scale bar is 100 μm.
s = shell,
v = ciliated velum,
cil = cilia,
cap = the capsule that surrounds each embryo.
Drawing of a dorsal view of an early veliger stage larva (5% of development) showing first fibres of larval muscles: - (purple) v = cilia of apical tuft and velum - (cornflower blue) the larval retractor muscle, - (yellow) the accessory retractor muscle, - (red) the velar ring muscles, s = shell, cap = the capsule that surrounds each embryo. The total size is about 170 mm. Aeolidiella stephanieae 12.png
Drawing of a dorsal view of an early veliger stage larva (5% of development) showing first fibres of larval muscles:
- (purple) v = cilia of apical tuft and velum
- (cornflower blue) the larval retractor muscle,
- (yellow) the accessory retractor muscle,
- (red) the velar ring muscles,
s = shell,
cap = the capsule that surrounds each embryo.
The total size is about 170 μm.

Veliger stage

Veliger stage (10-20% of development): The embryo can retract the velum into the shell and the eyes as well as the larval foot (propodium) appear. [6]

Drawing of lateral view of veliger stage larva (10% of development) with well-developed accessory, larval, pedal (blue), and a metapodial (green) retractor muscle. The total size is about 170 mm. - (purple) v = cilia of apical tuft and velum - (cornflower blue) the larval retractor muscle, - (yellow) the accessory retractor muscle, - (red) the velar ring muscles, - (dark blue) pedal retractor muscle, - (green) metapodial retractor muscle, o = operculum, s = shell. Aeolidiella stephanieae 13.png
Drawing of lateral view of veliger stage larva (10% of development) with well-developed accessory, larval, pedal (blue), and a metapodial (green) retractor muscle. The total size is about 170 μm.
- (purple) v = cilia of apical tuft and velum
- (cornflower blue) the larval retractor muscle,
- (yellow) the accessory retractor muscle,
- (red) the velar ring muscles,
- (dark blue) pedal retractor muscle,
- (green) metapodial retractor muscle,
o = operculum,
s = shell.
Dorsal view of veliger stage larva (12% of development). Scale bar is 100 mm. e = eyes, pp = elaborated larval foot (propodium), s = shell, v = ciliated velum, cap = the capsule that surrounds each embryo. Aeolidiella stephanieae 4.png
Dorsal view of veliger stage larva (12% of development). Scale bar is 100 μm.
e = eyes,
pp = elaborated larval foot (propodium),
s = shell,
v = ciliated velum,
cap = the capsule that surrounds each embryo.

Late veliger stage and metamorphosis

Late veliger stage (20-25% of development): The operculum is present and the foot becomes thicker and longer, the embryo hatches shortly prior to metamorphosis. Swimming is accomplished by ciliary beats of the velar cilia. [6]

Lateral view of hatched larva (20% of development). Scale bar is 100 mm. o = operculum, mp = metapodium to where is the operculum attached at, cil = cilia, s = shell, v = ciliated velum. Aeolidiella stephanieae 5.png
Lateral view of hatched larva (20% of development). Scale bar is 100 μm.
o = operculum,
mp = metapodium to where is the operculum attached at,
cil = cilia,
s = shell,
v = ciliated velum.
Drawing of lateral view of into the shell retracted metamorphic larva (25% of development) showing: ^ {\displaystyle \triangle } - (open triangles) degenerating velar lobes and muscles, - (purple) v = cilia of apical tuft and velum - (cornflower blue) the larval retractor muscle, - (red) the velar ring muscles, - (dark blue) pedal retractor muscle, - (green) metapodial retractor muscle, e = eye, o = operculum, s = shell. The total size is about 120 mm. Aeolidiella stephanieae 14.png
Drawing of lateral view of into the shell retracted metamorphic larva (25% of development) showing:
- (open triangles) degenerating velar lobes and muscles,
- (purple) v = cilia of apical tuft and velum
- (cornflower blue) the larval retractor muscle,
- (red) the velar ring muscles,
- (dark blue) pedal retractor muscle,
- (green) metapodial retractor muscle,
e = eye,
o = operculum,
s = shell.
The total size is about 120 μm.
Lateral view of retracted and settled larva in metamorphosis (25% of development). Scale bar is 100 mm. e = eyes, cil = cilia, s = shell. Aeolidiella stephanieae 6.png
Lateral view of retracted and settled larva in metamorphosis (25% of development). Scale bar is 100 μm.
e = eyes,
cil = cilia,
s = shell.

Metamorphosis (25-30% of development): Usually one day after hatching the larvae settle on the bottom and retract into the larval shell. During the process of metamorphosis, which does not take longer than 48 hours, the animals cast off their larval shell. [6]

Early juvenile stage

Early juvenile stage (30-40% of development): Slightly after metamorphosis the early juveniles start to crawl on the bottom, which also marks the beginning of the benthic lifestyle. [6]

Dorsal view of an early juvenile stage (30% of development). Scale bar is 100 mm. j = juvenile of Berghia stephanieae is crawling out of the shell and marking the end of the metamorphosis. pp = elaborated larval foot (propodium), e = eyes, s = shell. Aeolidiella stephanieae 7.png
Dorsal view of an early juvenile stage (30% of development). Scale bar is 100 μm.
j = juvenile of Berghia stephanieae is crawling out of the shell and marking the end of the metamorphosis.
pp = elaborated larval foot (propodium),
e = eyes,
s = shell.
Drawing of lateral view of early juvenile stage closely after metamorphosis (30% of development) showing the body wall musculature comprises muscle fibres: - (light green) longitudinal muscle fibers, - (black) circular muscle fibers, - (white) oblique muscle fibres, - (brown) anlage of the buccal musculature, - (apricot color) mouth, - (cornflower blue) the larval retractor muscle, ^ {\displaystyle \triangle } - (open triangle) larval retractor muscle is still degenerating, e = eye. The total size is about 200 mm. Aeolidiella stephanieae 15.png
Drawing of lateral view of early juvenile stage closely after metamorphosis (30% of development) showing the body wall musculature comprises muscle fibres:
- (light green) longitudinal muscle fibers,
- (black) circular muscle fibers,
- (white) oblique muscle fibres,
- (brown) anlage of the buccal musculature,
- (apricot color) mouth,
- (cornflower blue) the larval retractor muscle,
- (open triangle) larval retractor muscle is still degenerating,
e = eye.
The total size is about 200 μm.
Lateral view of an early vermiform juvenile stage (35% of development). Scale bar is 100 mm. r = anlage of the rhinophores, cil = cilia. The body is covered by cilia. e = eye, pp = propodium. Aeolidiella stephanieae 8.png
Lateral view of an early vermiform juvenile stage (35% of development). Scale bar is 100 μm.
r = anlage of the rhinophores,
cil = cilia. The body is covered by cilia.
e = eye,
pp = propodium.

The eyes indicate the anterior part of the white elongated animals. 24 hours after metamorphosis they crawl at the bottom of the culture dish without feeding. At the same time rhinophore rudiments appear anterior to the eyes as the first pair of cephalic tentacles. Ciliation of the early juveniles is detectable all over the body. At the anterior end and on the tip of the rhinophore rudiments there are cirri, which are compound sensory cilia. Generally, 48 hours after metamorphosis juvenile specimens of Berghia stephanieae start to prey upon pieces of Aiptasia pallida anemones. [6]

Juvenile stage

Juvenile stage (40-60% of development): At this stage the rudiments of oral tentacles (2nd pair of cephalic tentacles) and the paired, dorsal cerata appear. [6]

Drawing of dorsal view of juvenile (40% of development): - (light green) longitudinal muscle fibers, - (black) circular muscle fibers, - (white) oblique muscle fibres, - (brown) anlage of the buccal musculature, - (apricot color) mouth, ot = the anlage of oral tentacles, r = rhinophores, c = the first cerata pairs, e = eye. The total size is about 600 mm. Aeolidiella stephanieae 16.png
Drawing of dorsal view of juvenile (40% of development):
- (light green) longitudinal muscle fibers,
- (black) circular muscle fibers,
- (white) oblique muscle fibres,
- (brown) anlage of the buccal musculature,
- (apricot color) mouth,
ot = the anlage of oral tentacles,
r = rhinophores,
c = the first cerata pairs,
e = eye.
The total size is about 600 μm.
Dorsal view of 26 days after oviposition (43% of development). Scale bar is 100 mm. ot = oral tentacles, r = rhinophores, c = anlagen of the first cerata. Aeolidiella stephanieae 9.png
Dorsal view of 26 days after oviposition (43% of development). Scale bar is 100 μm.
ot = oral tentacles,
r = rhinophores,
c = anlagen of the first cerata.
Dorsal view of 30 days old juvenile (50% of development). Scale bar is 100 mm. cn =cnidosacs at the cerata tips. Note that the rhinophores as well as oral tentacles are longer and thicker now. ot = oral tentacles, r = rhinophores, e = eye, c = cerata. Aeolidiella stephanieae 10.png
Dorsal view of 30 days old juvenile (50% of development). Scale bar is 100 μm.
cn =cnidosacs at the cerata tips.
Note that the rhinophores as well as oral tentacles are longer and thicker now.
ot = oral tentacles,
r = rhinophores,
e = eye,
c = cerata.

The size of the body increases one third in contrast to the previous developmental stage. As the development continues, the length and the thickness of the rhinophores and oral tentacles increases as well as the body size. At this stage additional pairs of cerata appear and on their tip the filled cnidosacs can be detected for the first time. [6]

Late juvenile stage

As development proceeds, body elongation increases and more pairs of cerata as well as some tentacle-like elongation of the propodium appears. [6]

Dorsal view of 39 days after oviposition (65% of development). Scale bar is 100 mm. ft = foot tentacles A tentacle-like elongation of the propodium, appear. Note that the oral tentacles are almost twice as long as the rhinophores and the additional pairs of cerata. ot = oral tentacles, r = rhinophores, e = eye, c = cerata. cn =cnidosacs at the cerata tips. Aeolidiella stephanieae 11.png
Dorsal view of 39 days after oviposition (65% of development). Scale bar is 100 μm.
ft = foot tentacles
A tentacle-like elongation of the propodium, appear. Note that the oral tentacles are almost twice as long as the rhinophores and the additional pairs of cerata.
ot = oral tentacles,
r = rhinophores,
e = eye,
c = cerata.
cn =cnidosacs at the cerata tips.
Drawing of dorsal view of late juvenile (65% of development) showing the meshwork of outer circular, intermediate oblique, and inner longitudinal body wall muscle fibres as well as growing tentacles and the cerata with cnidosacs. The total size is about 1400 mm. - (light green) longitudinal muscle fibers, - (black) circular muscle fibers, - (white) oblique muscle fibres, - (brown) anlage of the buccal musculature, - (apricot color) mouth, cn = cnidosacs, ft = foot tentacle, a tentacle-like elongation of the propodium, ot = the anlage of oral tentacles, r = rhinophores, c = the first cerata pairs, e = eye. Aeolidiella stephanieae 17.png
Drawing of dorsal view of late juvenile (65% of development) showing the meshwork of outer circular, intermediate oblique, and inner longitudinal body wall muscle fibres as well as growing tentacles and the cerata with cnidosacs. The total size is about 1400 μm.
- (light green) longitudinal muscle fibers,
- (black) circular muscle fibers,
- (white) oblique muscle fibres,
- (brown) anlage of the buccal musculature,
- (apricot color) mouth,
cn = cnidosacs,
ft = foot tentacle, a tentacle-like elongation of the propodium,
ot = the anlage of oral tentacles,
r = rhinophores,
c = the first cerata pairs,
e = eye.
Dorsal view of morphology of mature Aeolidiella stephanieae (100% of development). Scale bar is 100 mm. ot = oral tentacles, ft = foot tentacles, e = eye, r = rhinophores, cn =cnidosacs at the cerata tips, c = cerata. Aeolidiella stephanieae.png
Dorsal view of morphology of mature Aeolidiella stephanieae (100% of development). Scale bar is 100 μm.
ot = oral tentacles,
ft = foot tentacles,
e = eye,
r = rhinophores,
cn =cnidosacs at the cerata tips,
c = cerata.

Mature stage

At the mature stage of Berghia stephanieae, the body size is between 0.8–1 cm, which is ten times bigger than in the previous developmental stage, and the oral tentacles are twice as long as the rhinophores. Reproductive maturity is reached 60 days after oviposition (100% of development). The first egg masses are small and contain 60 to 80 embryos. Mature individuals reach a maximum size of 5 cm, and their egg masses contain 1000 to 2000 embryos. [6]

Central nervous system and periphery

The neurogenesis of Berghia stephanieae is similar to that of other nudibranchs. The larval nervous system of Berghia stephanieae includes an apical organ, developing central ganglia, and peripheral neurons associated with the velum, foot and posterior part of the larvae. The first neurons containing serotonin and FMRFamide are observed during the early veliger stage (5-10% of development) in the apical organ. Slightly later, in the veliger stage (15% of development), peripheral FMRFamidergic cells appear in the posterior part of the larvae, and persist throughout metamorphosis into the early juvenile stage (30% of development). In other gastropods, these neurons have never been documented to persist during metamorphosis. [6] As in many other gastropods, the ganglia of Berghia stephanieae develop from an anterior to posterior direction in both expression patterns, serotonergic and FMRFamidergic, where the cerebral ganglia develop first followed by the pedal-, and the posterior ganglia. [6] As in other nudibranchs described, the central nervous system of Berghia stephanieae becomes more concentrated during metamorphosis. [6] In the newly metamorphosed Berghia stephanieae rhinophoral ganglia appear as additional neural structures at the same time as the rhinophores start to grow. [6]

Myogenesis

Berghia stephanieae has a larval retractor muscle and also the accessory larval retractor muscle is present. [6] As in other nudibranchs the post-metamorphic myo-anatomy in Berghia stephanieae is formed de novo . [6] However, regardless the number, larval retractor muscles make no contribution to the post-metamorphic columellar muscle in opisthobranchs. [6]

In the aquarium

Berghia stephanieae is considered one of the best predators for Aiptasia sp., sea anemones that are usually considered pests in the marine aquarium hobby, because they are stressful to coral around them, and occasionally even sting fish and desirable invertebrates. Because Berghia stephanieae only eat Aiptasias, the nudibranchs will die of starvation when all the anemones are gone, so this situation must be taken into account. [7] Prior to the description of Berghia stephanieae in 2005, that species from the aquaria have been called as " Berghia verrucicornis ". [8]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nudibranch</span> Order of gastropods

Nudibranchs belong to the order Nudibranchia, a group of soft-bodied marine gastropod molluscs that shed their shells after their larval stage. They are noted for their often extraordinary colours and striking forms, and they have been given colourful nicknames to match, such as "clown", "marigold", "splendid", "dancer", "dragon", and "sea rabbit". Currently, about 3,000 valid species of nudibranchs are known.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tusk shell</span> Class of elephant tusk shell molluscs

The tusk shells or tooth shells, technically the Scaphopoda, are members of a class of shelled marine mollusc with worldwide distribution, and are the only class of exclusively infaunal marine molluscs. Shells of species within this class range in length 0.5–18 cm (0.20–7.09 in). Members of the order Dentaliida tend to be larger than those of the order Gadilida.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Veliger</span> Larval stage of some snails

A veliger is the planktonic larva of many kinds of sea snails and freshwater snails, as well as most bivalve molluscs (clams) and tusk shells.

<i>Aiptasia</i> Genus of sea anemones

Aiptasia is a genus of a symbiotic cnidarian belonging to the class Anthozoa. Aiptasia is a widely distributed genus of temperate and tropical sea anemones of benthic lifestyle typically found living on mangrove roots and hard substrates. These anemones, as well as many other cnidarian species, often contain symbiotic dinoflagellate unicellular algae of the genus Symbiodinium living inside nutritive cells. The symbionts provide food mainly in the form of lipids and sugars produced from photosynthesis to the host while the hosts provides inorganic nutrients and a constant and protective environment to the algae. Species of Aiptasia are relatively weedy anemones able to withstand a relatively wide range of salinities and other water quality conditions. In the case of A. pallida and A. pulchella, their hardiness coupled with their ability to reproduce very quickly and out-compete other species in culture gives these anemones the status of pest from the perspective of coral reef aquarium hobbyists. These very characteristics make them easy to grow in the laboratory and thus they are extensively used as model organisms for scientific study. In this respect, Aiptasia have contributed a significant amount of knowledge regarding cnidarian biology, especially human understanding of cnidarian-algal symbioses, a biological phenomenon crucial to the survival of corals and coral reef ecosystems. The dependence of coral reefs on the health of the symbiosis is dramatically illustrated by the devastating effects experienced by corals due to the loss of algal symbionts in response to environmental stress, a phenomenon known as coral bleaching.

<i>Fiona pinnata</i> Species of gastropod

Fiona pinnata, common name Fiona, is a species of small pelagic nudibranch, a marine gastropod mollusk in the superfamily Fionoidea. This nudibranch species lives worldwide on floating objects on seas, and feeds mainly on barnacles, specifically goose barnacles in the genus Lepas.

<i>Aeolidia papillosa</i> Species of gastropod

Aeolidia papillosa, known as the common grey sea slug, is a species of nudibranch in the family Aeolidiidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea anemone</span> Marine animals of the order Actiniaria

Sea anemones are a group of predatory marine invertebrates constituting the order Actiniaria. Because of their colourful appearance, they are named after the Anemone, a terrestrial flowering plant. Sea anemones are classified in the phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Hexacorallia. As cnidarians, sea anemones are related to corals, jellyfish, tube-dwelling anemones, and Hydra. Unlike jellyfish, sea anemones do not have a medusa stage in their life cycle.

<i>Nembrotha lineolata</i> Species of gastropod

Nembrotha lineolata is a species of nudibranch, a sea slug, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Polyceridae. It is found in shallow water in the Indo-Pacific. It was first described in 1905 by the Danish malacologist Rudolph Bergh. The type locality is Selayar Island, Indonesia.

<i>Elysia pusilla</i> Species of gastropod

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<i>Pseudunela cornuta</i> Species of gastropod

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<i>Berghia</i> Genus of gastropods

Berghia is a genus of sea slugs, aeolid nudibranchs. They are shell-less marine gastropod molluscs in the family Aeolidiidae. They are covered in cerata which give them their unique tentacle look and color. Berghia are commonly found in shallow waters and their diet consists of strictly Aiptasia Anemone. This genus is now commonly used commercially to fight off Anemone populations in fish tanks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prodissoconch</span>

A prodissoconch is an embryonic or larval shell which is present in the larva of a bivalve mollusk. The prodissoconch is often but not always smooth, and has no growth lines. It is sometimes still present and visible in the adult shell, if there has been no erosion of the shell in that area.

<i>Scyllaea pelagica</i> Species of gastropod

Scyllaea pelagica, common name the sargassum nudibranch, is a species of nudibranch, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Scyllaeidae. This species lives among floating seaweed in the world's oceans, feeding on hydroids.

Anteaeolidiella saldanhensis, is a species of sea slug, an aeolid nudibranch. It is a shell-less marine gastropod mollusc in the family Aeolidiidae.

<i>Anteaeolidiella oliviae</i> Species of gastropod

Anteaeolidiella oliviae, is a species of sea slug, an aeolid nudibranch. It is a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Aeolidiidae.

Cerberilla mosslandica is a species of sea slug, an aeolid nudibranch, a marine heterobranch mollusc in the family Aeolidiidae.

<i>Aeolidiella alderi</i> Species of gastropod

Aeolidiella alderi is a species of sea slug, an aeolid nudibranch in the family Aeolidiidae. It is native to northwestern Europe where it occurs in the intertidal zone. It is a predator and feeds on sea anemones.

<i>Dondice occidentalis</i> Species of gastropod

Dondice occidentalis is a species of sea slug, an aeolid nudibranch, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Facelinidae.

<i>Bathyhedyle boucheti</i> Species of gastropod

Bathyhedyle boucheti is a species of panpulmonate slug, a deep-sea dwelling gastropod native to the continental slope off the coast of Mozambique. It is the first ever such panpulmonate slug to be discovered at such depths. It is the only known member of its family group. Its radular formula is 1.1.2.

<i>Clava multicornis</i> Genus of hydrozoans

Clava is a monotypic genus of hydrozoans in the family Hydractiniidae. It contains only one accepted species, Clava multicornis. Other names synonymous with Clava multicornis include Clava cornea, Clava diffusa, Clava leptostyla, Clava nodosa, Clava parasitica, Clava squamata, Coryne squamata, Hydra multicornis, and Hydra squamata. The larvae form of the species has a well developed nervous system compared to its small size. The adult form is also advanced due to its ability to stay dormant during unfavorable periods.

References

This article incorporates CC-BY-2.0 text from the reference. [6]

  1. ↑ Valdés A. (2005). "A new species of Aeolidiella Bergh, 1867 (Mollusca: Nudibranchia: Aeolidiidae) from the Florida Keys, USA". Veliger 47(3) Archived April 23, 2012, at the Wayback Machine : 218-223.
  2. ↑ Carmona L., Pola M., Gosliner T.M. & Cervera J.L. 2013. A tale that morphology fails to tell: A molecular phylogeny of Aeolidiidae (Aeolidida, Nudibranchia, Gastropoda). PLoS ONE 8(5): e63000. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063000.
  3. ↑ Gofas, S. (2014). Berghia stephanieae (Valdés, 2005). Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species on 2015-02-23
  4. 1 2 3 "Aeolidiella stephanieae Valdés, 2005". Malacolog Version 4.1.1. A Database of Western Atlantic Marine Mollusca, accessed 20 February 2010.
  5. 1 2 3 Rudman W. B. (20 August 2005). "Aeolidiella stephanieae Valdes, 2005". Sea Slug Forum, accessed 20 February 2010.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Kristof A. & Klussmann-Kolb A. (22 January 2010). "Neuromuscular development of Aeolidiella stephanieae Valdéz, 2005 (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Nudibranchia)". Frontiers in Zoology 7: 5. doi : 10.1186/1742-9994-7-5.
  7. ↑ Hauter, Stan & Debbie. "Eliminating Aiptasia Anemones From Saltwater Aquariums". About.com. Archived from the original on 2 January 2017. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
  8. ↑ "The Sea Slug Forum - Berghia verrucicornis". www.seaslugforum.net. July 2010. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
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