Carbaminohemoglobin

Last updated

Carbaminohemoglobin (carbaminohaemoglobin BrE) (CO2Hb, also known as carbhemoglobin and carbohemoglobin) is a compound of hemoglobin and carbon dioxide, and is one of the forms in which carbon dioxide exists in the blood. [1] Twenty-three percent of carbon dioxide is carried in blood this way (70% is converted into bicarbonate by carbonic anhydrase and then carried in plasma, 7% carried as free CO2, dissolved in plasma). [2]

Contents

Structure

Carbaminohemoglobin is a compound that bind to hemoglobin in the blood. Hemoglobin is a protein that is found in red blood cells and it is crucial for transporting oxygen from the lungs to tissues and organs. Hemoglobin also plays an important role in transporting carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs for exhalation. [3]

The structure of carbaminohemoglobin can be described as the binding of carbon dioxide to the amino groups of the globin chains of hemoglobin. This occurs at the N-terminals of the globin chains and at the amino sidebranches of arginine and lysine residues. [4] The process of carbon dioxide binding to hemoglobin is generally known as carbamino formation. This is the source from where the protein gets its name, as it is a combination of carbamino and hemoglobin. [5]

Function

One of the primary functions of carbaminohemoglobin is to enable the transport of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream. When carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product of cellular metabolism in tissues, the compound is diffused into the bloodstream and it works to react with hemoglobin. [6]

When the binding of molecules occurs to form carbaminohemoglobin, it allows for the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. One it is in the lungs, carbon dioxide is released from carbaminohemoglobin and can be let out from the body during the exhalation process. This complete process is very important for maintaining the balance of gases in the blood and to ensure that gas exchange is being transported between tissues and organs. [7]

Interaction

Carbaminohemoglobin interacts with carbon dioxide in a process known as respiratory gas exchange. The interaction involves the binding of carbon dioxide to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide binds to the protein chains of hemoglobin. The ability of hemoglobin to bind to both oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules is what makes it an important protein to the respiratory system in respiratory gas exchange.

The interactions between carbon dioxide and hemoglobin helps in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs for eliminations. When carbon dioxide is transported from the tissues, it is produced as a waste product of a set of reactions known as cellular metabolism. Most importantly, the binding of carbon dioxide to hemoglobin plays a part in the buffering of blood pH by preventing the drop of pH due to the production of carbonic acid. [7]

Although, the carbaminohemoglobin protein interacts with another protein (like hemoglobin) found in red blood cells, this interaction only takes place in the bloodstream and its products can be expelled. Carbaminohemoglobin does not interact with DNA since DNA is a molecule that is found in cell nucleus and its function is to carry genetic information. [8]

Regulation

The formation and dissociation of the protein carbaminohemoglobin are controlled by many factors to guarantee the transport of carbon dioxide to the blood stream. A list of regulatory factors are listed below:

  1. Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide (pCO2): The measure of carbon dioxide within arterial or venous blood. [9] The amount of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is influenced by the partial pressure of the molecule carbon dioxide. In tissues where cellular metabolism produces carbon dioxide, the partial pressure is higher and it leads to the binding of carbon dioxide to hemoglobin. On the other hand, in the lungs, there is a lower amount of partial pressure of carbon dioxide, which promotes the separation of carbon dioxide from hemoglobin.
  2. pH: The Bohr effect outlines how the binding and release of oxygen and carbon dioxide by hemoglobin are influenced by fluctuations of pH in the blood. When tissues metabolize, they produce carbon dioxide and acidic products, which eventually lead to a decrease in pH levels in the blood. When the pH is low, this promotes the binding of carbon dioxide to hemoglobin and facilities the transport to the lungs. On the contrary, when the pH is higher in the lungs, carbon dioxide is released from hemoglobin. [10]
  3. Temperature: A factor such as temperature can affect the binding and release of gases by hemoglobin. The effect of temperature on the binding of carbon dioxide to hemoglobin is less noticeable compared to other gases, but this factor can still have an influence on the overall regulation of gas exchange. [11]
  4. Concentration of Bicarbonate (HCO3-): A high percentage of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is transferred in the form of bicarbonate ions. Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid. This molecule breaks down into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. This break down process occurs in red blood cells. Ultimately, the concentration of bicarbonate ions in the bloodstream affects the formation of the protein carbaminohemoglobin in the body. [12]

Synthesis

When the tissues release carbon dioxide into the bloodstream, around 10% is dissolved into the plasma. The rest of the carbon dioxide is carried either directly or indirectly by hemoglobin. Approximately 10% of the carbon dioxide carried by hemoglobin is in the form of carbaminohemoglobin. This carbaminohemoglobin is formed by the reaction between carbon dioxide and an amino (-NH2) residue from the globin molecule, resulting in the formation of a carbamino residue (-NH.COO−). The rest of the carbon dioxide is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate anions. [13]

Mechanism

When carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin, carbaminohemoglobin is formed, lowering hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen via the Bohr effect. The reaction is formed between a carbon dioxide molecule and an amino residue. [13] In the absence of oxygen, unbound hemoglobin molecules have a greater chance of becoming carbaminohemoglobin. The Haldane effect relates to the increased affinity of de-oxygenated hemoglobin for H+
: offloading of oxygen to the tissues thus results in increased affinity of the hemoglobin for carbon dioxide, and H+
, which the body needs to get rid of, which can then be transported to the lung for removal. Because the formation of this compound generates hydrogen ions, haemoglobin is needed to buffer it. [13]

Hemoglobin can bind to four molecules of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide molecules form a carbamate with the four terminal-amine groups of the four protein chains in the deoxy form of the molecule. Thus, one hemoglobin molecule can transport four carbon dioxide molecules back to the lungs, where they are released when the molecule changes back to the oxyhemoglobin form. [7]

Hydrogen ion and oxygen-carbon dioxide coupling

When carbon dioxide diffuses as a dissolved gas from the tissue capillaries, it binds to the α-amino terminus of the globulin chain, forming Carbaminohemoglobin. Carbaminohemoglobin is able to directly stabilise the T conformation as part of the carbon dioxide Bohr effect. Deoxyhemoglobin in turn subsequently increases the uptake of carbon dioxide in the form of favouring the formation of Bicarbonate as well as Carbaminohemoglobin through the Haldane effect. [14]

Disease association

Dysfunctional or altered levels of carbaminohemoglobin do not generally cause disease or disorders. Carbaminohemoglobin is a part of the carbon dioxide transport process in the body. The levels of this protein can decrease and increase based on factors that regulate the protein in the body. [15]

A way that carbaminohemoglobin can be associated with disease is when there is a change in its level caused by a pre-existing condition or imbalance in the respiratory and metabolic systems of the human body.

Some of these existing medical conditions can be the following:

  1. Respiratory acidosis: This condition is characterized by a build up of carbon dioxide in the blood, which leads to a drop in the blood's pH. This occurs when there is an impairment in the gas exchange process, such as respiratory failure. [16]
  2. Hypoventilation: This type of condition can result in higher levels of carbaminohemoglobin. This condition can be caused by many factors, such as central nervous system disorders, and even some medications. [17]

Biological Importance

The protein carbaminohemoglobin plays an important role in the transport of carbon dioxide in the blood, and its biologically important in many functions:

  1. Transport of Carbon Dioxide: This process allows for the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. It is essential for maintaining the balance of gases in the bloodstream and to guarantee the removal of waste carbon dioxide from the body. [18]
  2. Buffering Blood pH: The binding of carbon dioxide to hemoglobin plays a part in the buffering of blood pH. When tissues produce carbon dioxide, the increase in acidity is reduced by the formation of bicarbonate ions. This buffering process helps prevent a decrease in pH and helps maintain a stable environment. [18]
  3. Facilitation of Gas Exchange: Hemoglobin facilitates the exchange of gases in the lungs and tissues. In the lungs, oxygen binds to hemoglobin and carbon dioxide is released. In the tissues, carbon dioxide binds to form carbaminohemoglobin and oxygen is released. This exchange process is important because tissues need oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide is also necessary. [19]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blood</span> Organic fluid which transports nutrients throughout the organism

Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells, and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypoxia (medicine)</span> Medical condition of lack of oxygen in the tissues

Hypoxia is a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply at the tissue level. Hypoxia may be classified as either generalized, affecting the whole body, or local, affecting a region of the body. Although hypoxia is often a pathological condition, variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during strenuous physical exercise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemoglobin</span> Metalloprotein that binds with oxygen

Hemoglobin is a protein containing iron that facilitates the transport of oxygen in red blood cells. Almost all vertebrates contain hemoglobin, with the sole exception of the fish family Channichthyidae. Hemoglobin in the blood carries oxygen from the respiratory organs to the other tissues of the body, where it releases the oxygen to enable aerobic respiration which powers the animal's metabolism. A healthy human has 12 to 20 grams of hemoglobin in every 100 mL of blood. Hemoglobin is a metalloprotein, a chromoprotein, and globulin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Respiratory system</span> Biological system in animals and plants for gas exchange

The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants. The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies greatly, depending on the size of the organism, the environment in which it lives and its evolutionary history. In land animals, the respiratory surface is internalized as linings of the lungs. Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in millions of small air sacs; in mammals and reptiles, these are called alveoli, and in birds, they are known as atria. These microscopic air sacs have a very rich blood supply, thus bringing the air into close contact with the blood. These air sacs communicate with the external environment via a system of airways, or hollow tubes, of which the largest is the trachea, which branches in the middle of the chest into the two main bronchi. These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles. In birds, the bronchioles are termed parabronchi. It is the bronchioles, or parabronchi that generally open into the microscopic alveoli in mammals and atria in birds. Air has to be pumped from the environment into the alveoli or atria by the process of breathing which involves the muscles of respiration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red blood cell</span> Oxygen-delivering blood cell and the most common type of blood cell

Red blood cells (RBCs), referred to as erythrocytes in academia and medical publishing, also known as red cells, erythroid cells, and rarely haematids, are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen to the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system. Erythrocytes take up oxygen in the lungs, or in fish the gills, and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body's capillaries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemoprotein</span> Protein containing a heme prosthetic group

A hemeprotein, or heme protein, is a protein that contains a heme prosthetic group. They are a very large class of metalloproteins. The heme group confers functionality, which can include oxygen carrying, oxygen reduction, electron transfer, and other processes. Heme is bound to the protein either covalently or noncovalently or both.

Diffusing capacity of the lung (DL) measures the transfer of gas from air in the lung, to the red blood cells in lung blood vessels. It is part of a comprehensive series of pulmonary function tests to determine the overall ability of the lung to transport gas into and out of the blood. DL, especially DLCO, is reduced in certain diseases of the lung and heart. DLCO measurement has been standardized according to a position paper by a task force of the European Respiratory and American Thoracic Societies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arterial blood gas test</span> A test of blood taken from an artery that measures the amounts of certain dissolved gases

An arterial blood gas (ABG) test, or arterial blood gas analysis (ABGA) measures the amounts of arterial gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. An ABG test requires that a small volume of blood be drawn from the radial artery with a syringe and a thin needle, but sometimes the femoral artery in the groin or another site is used. The blood can also be drawn from an arterial catheter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gas exchange</span> Process by which gases diffuse through a biological membrane

Gas exchange is the physical process by which gases move passively by diffusion across a surface. For example, this surface might be the air/water interface of a water body, the surface of a gas bubble in a liquid, a gas-permeable membrane, or a biological membrane that forms the boundary between an organism and its extracellular environment.

Acidosis is a biological process producing hydrogen ions and increasing their concentration in blood or body fluids. pH is the negative log of hydrogen ion concentration and so it is decreased by a process of acidosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fetal hemoglobin</span> Oxygen carrier protein in the human fetus

Fetal hemoglobin, or foetal haemoglobin is the main oxygen carrier protein in the human fetus. Hemoglobin F is found in fetal red blood cells, and is involved in transporting oxygen from the mother's bloodstream to organs and tissues in the fetus. It is produced at around 6 weeks of pregnancy and the levels remain high after birth until the baby is roughly 2–4 months old. Hemoglobin F has a different composition than adult forms of hemoglobin, allowing it to bind oxygen more strongly; this in turn enables the developing fetus to retrieve oxygen from the mother's bloodstream, which occurs through the placenta found in the mother's uterus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bohr effect</span> Concept in physiology

The Bohr effect is a phenomenon first described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian Bohr. Hemoglobin's oxygen binding affinity (see oxygen–haemoglobin dissociation curve) is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide. That is, the Bohr effect refers to the shift in the oxygen dissociation curve caused by changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide or the pH of the environment. Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH, resulting in hemoglobin proteins releasing their load of oxygen. Conversely, a decrease in carbon dioxide provokes an increase in pH, which results in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen.

Carboxyhemoglobin is a stable complex of carbon monoxide and hemoglobin (Hb) that forms in red blood cells upon contact with carbon monoxide. Carboxyhemoglobin is often mistaken for the compound formed by the combination of carbon dioxide (carboxyl) and hemoglobin, which is actually carbaminohemoglobin. Carboxyhemoglobin terminology emerged when carbon monoxide was known by its historic name, "carbonic oxide", and evolved through Germanic and British English etymological influences; the preferred IUPAC nomenclature is carbonylhemoglobin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve</span> Visual tool used to understand how human blood carries and releases oxygen

The oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve, also called the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve or oxygen dissociation curve (ODC), is a curve that plots the proportion of hemoglobin in its saturated (oxygen-laden) form on the vertical axis against the prevailing oxygen tension on the horizontal axis. This curve is an important tool for understanding how our blood carries and releases oxygen. Specifically, the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve relates oxygen saturation (SO2) and partial pressure of oxygen in the blood (PO2), and is determined by what is called "hemoglobin affinity for oxygen"; that is, how readily hemoglobin acquires and releases oxygen molecules into the fluid that surrounds it.

The Haldane effect is a property of hemoglobin first described by John Scott Haldane, within which oxygenation of blood in the lungs displaces carbon dioxide from hemoglobin, increasing the removal of carbon dioxide. Consequently, oxygenated blood has a reduced affinity for carbon dioxide. Thus, the Haldane effect describes the ability of hemoglobin to carry increased amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the deoxygenated state as opposed to the oxygenated state. Vice versa, it is true that a high concentration of CO2 facilitates dissociation of oxyhemoglobin, though this is the result of two distinct processes (Bohr effect and Margaria-Green effect) and should be distinguished from Haldane effect.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bicarbonate buffer system</span> Buffer system that maintains pH balance in humans

The bicarbonate buffer system is an acid-base homeostatic mechanism involving the balance of carbonic acid (H2CO3), bicarbonate ion (HCO−
3), and carbon dioxide (CO2) in order to maintain pH in the blood and duodenum, among other tissues, to support proper metabolic function. Catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase, carbon dioxide (CO2) reacts with water (H2O) to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which in turn rapidly dissociates to form a bicarbonate ion (HCO−
3 ) and a hydrogen ion (H+) as shown in the following reaction:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chloride shift</span> Transfer of ions into red blood cells

Chloride shift (also known as the Hamburger phenomenon or lineas phenomenon, named after Hartog Jakob Hamburger) is a process which occurs in a cardiovascular system and refers to the exchange of bicarbonate (HCO3−) and chloride (Cl−) across the membrane of red blood cells (RBCs).

Dioxygen plays an important role in the energy metabolism of living organisms. Free oxygen is produced in the biosphere through photolysis of water during photosynthesis in cyanobacteria, green algae, and plants. During oxidative phosphorylation in cellular respiration, oxygen is reduced to water, thus closing the biological water-oxygen redox cycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oxygen saturation (medicine)</span> Medical measurement

Oxygen saturation is the fraction of oxygen-saturated haemoglobin relative to total haemoglobin in the blood. The human body requires and regulates a very precise and specific balance of oxygen in the blood. Normal arterial blood oxygen saturation levels in humans are 96–100 percent. If the level is below 90 percent, it is considered low and called hypoxemia. Arterial blood oxygen levels below 80 percent may compromise organ function, such as the brain and heart, and should be promptly addressed. Continued low oxygen levels may lead to respiratory or cardiac arrest. Oxygen therapy may be used to assist in raising blood oxygen levels. Oxygenation occurs when oxygen molecules enter the tissues of the body. For example, blood is oxygenated in the lungs, where oxygen molecules travel from the air and into the blood. Oxygenation is commonly used to refer to medical oxygen saturation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbonic anhydrase</span> Class of enzymes

The carbonic anhydrases form a family of enzymes that catalyze the interconversion between carbon dioxide and water and the dissociated ions of carbonic acid. The active site of most carbonic anhydrases contains a zinc ion. They are therefore classified as metalloenzymes. The enzyme maintains acid-base balance and helps transport carbon dioxide.

References

  1. ↑ Betts JG, Desaix P, Johnson E, Johnson JE, Korol O, Kruse D, et al. (September 13, 2023). "22.5 Transport of Gases". Anatomy & Physiology. Houston: OpenStax CNX. 22.5 Transport of gases. ISBN   978-1-947172-04-3.
  2. ↑ Gas Transport in the Blood Archived 2019-01-28 at the Wayback Machine FIG. 18.11 Carbon dioxide transport
  3. ↑ Hsia CC (January 1998). "Respiratory function of hemoglobin". The New England Journal of Medicine. 338 (4): 239–247. doi:10.1056/NEJM199801223380407. PMID   9435331.
  4. ↑ Lumb, AB (2017). Nunn's Applied Respiratory Physiology (8th ed.). p. 153. ISBN   9780702062940.
  5. ↑ Thomas C, Lumb AB (October 2012). "Physiology of haemoglobin". Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain. 12 (5): 251–256. doi: 10.1093/bjaceaccp/mks025 .
  6. ↑ Groeneveld AB (June 1998). "Interpreting the venous-arterial PCO2 difference". Critical Care Medicine. 26 (6): 979–980. doi:10.1097/00003246-199806000-00002. PMID   9635634.
  7. 1 2 3 Perrella M, Rossi-Bernardi L (April 1979). The determination of CO2 bound to hemoglobin as carbamate. Biophysics and Physiology of Carbon Dioxide; Symposium held at the University of Regensburg (FRG). Berlin, Heidelberg: pringer Science & Business Media. pp. 75–83. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-67572-0_8.
  8. ↑ Moore EE, Johnson JL, Cheng AM, Masuno T, Banerjee A (September 2005). "Insights from studies of blood substitutes in trauma". Shock. 24 (3): 197–205. doi: 10.1097/01.shk.0000180075.76766.fe . PMID   16135956.
  9. ↑ Messina Z, Patrick H (2022). "Partial pressure of carbon dioxide.". StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. PMID   31869112.
  10. ↑ Jensen FB (November 2004). "Red blood cell pH, the Bohr effect, and other oxygenation-linked phenomena in blood O2 and CO2 transport". Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. 182 (3): 215–227. doi:10.1111/j.1365-201X.2004.01361.x. PMID   15491402.
  11. ↑ Hertog ML, Peppelenbos HW, Evelo RG, Tijskens LM (November 1998). "A dynamic and generic model of gas exchange of respiring produce: the effects of oxygen, carbon dioxide and temperature". Postharvest Biology and Technology. 14 (3): 335–349. doi:10.1016/S0925-5214(98)00058-1.
  12. ↑ Arthurs GJ, Sudhakar M (December 2005). "Carbon dioxide transport". Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain. 5 (6): 207–210. doi: 10.1093/bjaceaccp/mki050 .
  13. 1 2 3 Waterhouse J, Campbell I (November 2005). "Respiration: gas transfer". Anaesthesia & Intensive Care Medicine. Thoracic. 6 (11): 363–366. doi:10.1383/anes.2005.6.11.363. ISSN   1472-0299.
  14. ↑ Hsia CC (January 1998). "Respiratory function of hemoglobin". The New England Journal of Medicine. 338 (4): 239–247. doi:10.1056/NEJM199801223380407. PMID   9435331.
  15. ↑ Song MA, Wang L (2016). "Detection of serum carbaminohemoglobin and glycated hemoglobin" (PDF). Journal of Hainan Medical University. 22 (12): 127–130. Archived from the original on 2020-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-28.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  16. ↑ Epstein SK, Singh N (April 2001). "Respiratory acidosis". Respiratory Care. 46 (4): 366–383. PMID   11262556.
  17. ↑ Johnson RA, Morais HA (2006). "Respiratory acid–base disorders.". In DiBartola SP (ed.). Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid–base Disorders in Small Animal Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN   978-1-4377-0655-0.
  18. 1 2 Geers C, Gros G (April 2000). "Carbon dioxide transport and carbonic anhydrase in blood and muscle". Physiological Reviews. 80 (2): 681–715. doi:10.1152/physrev.2000.80.2.681. PMID   10747205. S2CID   606543.
  19. ↑ Seki S, Goto K, Kondo T, Fukushima Y, Konishi H, Kosaka F (June 1984). "Gas exchange and facilitation of high-frequency ventilation in intrathoracic surgery". The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 37 (6): 491–496. doi: 10.1016/s0003-4975(10)61139-3 . PMID   6428336.


Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.