Christian devotional literature (also called devotionals or Christian living literature) is religious writing that Christian individuals read for their personal growth and spiritual formation. [1] Such literature often takes the form of Christian daily devotionals. [2] Original excerpts including the Book of Daniel and Leviticus derive from Ancient Roman (753 BC – 640 AD), Greek and Byzantine (395 AD – 1453 AD) culture – and encompass the past relationship of God's Law through the Old Testament. Though these are the most significant accounts, the majority of the literature comprises commentaries to the ever changing social and political reforms of human history – including the impact of censorship, persecution – the reign of Emperor Nero (54 AD – 68 AD) and Diocletian (284 AD – 305 AD) and martyrdom on Christian life through the ages (Gregory, 2001). [3]
The sources of devotional literature vary across society. Monks, priests and saints such as Agios Paisios (Άγιος Παΐσιος), St. Ephraim and Anthony the Great follow the Western interpretation of holistic commentary, with a focus on aspects of faith such as virtue as both secondary and primary sources; while scholars and philosophers such as Samara Levy (2001) and Christopher Kaczor (2021) break the religio-socio barrier by integrating Eastern, Arabic and international culture and ideologies.
The oldest forms of devotional literature were manifested as prophecies, particularly before Christ; and were provided under the dictation of the Holy Spirit as a direct communication of God's "future plans". [4] [ better source needed ]
The Eastern influence of prophecy becomes apparent through Isaiah and Samuel's literature, deriving from the Judean and Israelian province, supported by Hosea and Micah's ministry in the North Kingdom of Israel and Southwest Judah respectively. [5]
Literacy in Ancient Israel indicates the influence of the Western Semites. Canaanites, however, lacked the complexity of the Egyptian, Babylonian and Assyrian writing systems. This factor increased Israeli literacy rates and allowed large populations to contribute to the amassing prophecies by improving the quantity and quality of public inscription, therefore improving the accessibility of scripture. [6] This is exhibited in findings such as the Arad Ostraca, the Haifa grotto (2nd century AD), [7] and the Broken Seal of Prophet Isaiah (7th century AD), and ultimately contributed to the rapid growth of the Christian doctrine in the Western world. [8]
The turning point occurred within the four canonical gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) of the New Testament, where Jesus' ministry drove the theme of Apostolic influence over the Eastern civilisations, subverting the previous doctrine of justice with newfound humility. [9] Contemporary excerpts from Agios Paisios (1994) related the New Testament as "God's will to increase the scope of the Christian, to not stop at justice but look for humility", as a parallel to God's desire to reach non-Christians. For example, Matthew 8:5–13 highlights Jesus's contentment with the Gentiles, "Verily I say unto you, I have not found so great faith, no, not in Israel," as a nod to progression in the spiritual, as well as the progression of the literature. [10]
Further literature was developed under the doctrine of the Ecumenical council: the Nicene Creed (325 AD, First Council of Nicaea), the Apostolic and Athanasian (late fifth to early sixth century AD) Creeds, as well as the Epistolic accounts to the provinces of Rome, Jerusalem and Corinth. [11] Davis (1990), comments on the "growing affiliation with Western civilization" throughout history to highlight the propagation of Christian Literature with globalization; contrasting from the primarily "repetitive" distribution of literature in Eastern provinces such as East-Asia and Ancient Assyria that were a result of anti-religious dictatorship and Christian persecution. [12]
The Seventh Ecumenical Council marked the period of religio-political hostility between the Roman and Byzantine roots of Christianity, embarking many theological and literature-based differences between the two Churches, most prominent being the sacramental use of unleavened bread, as well as the origins and procession of the Holy Spirit (monoprocessionism, filioque) in the Holy Trinity. [13]
Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in the inspiration of the Holy Spirit as a direct proceeding from the Father as is made clear with literature such as the accounts of the Gospels. [14] This ideology is exhibited in John 15:26, Jesus says of the Holy Spirit: "But when the Helper comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, the Spirit of truth, who proceeds from the Father, he will bear witness about me" (Lossky, 1976).
This idea of forbearance is recurrently idealised both throughout Eastern Liturgical and sacramental worship to "enrich the value of the intercessions of the Father" according to the Eastern Theological Teachings (Lossky, 1976).
During the divine liturgy, the line "Father of light, from whom every good gift comes, send your Spirit into our lives..." as well as the Nicene Creed, "begotten of the Father, through Him all things were made..." addresses the centrality of the Father as the Forebear; whilst Western theologians understand the value of the Godhead, "Spirit uncreateth" (Athanasian Creed, 5th century AD) but portray the Trinity as begetters of one-another, "Light from Light, true God from true God". [15]
Eastern Orthodoxy refers to the Nicene Creed (from the First Council of Nicaea also known as the Council of Constantinople, 325 AD) in liturgical writing, affirming the monoprocessional understanding as seen in "who proceedeth from the Father" as widely accepted theologically by the Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, Oriental Orthodox, and Protestant (such as Lutheran and Anglican) churches. [16] However, recent Vatican Councils (1995), argued that including the words καὶ τοῦ Υἱοῦ ('and the Son') would indeed be an act of "heresy of the literature" if used with the Greek word ἐκπορεύομαι (meaning 'out of', 'originating from') as to highlight the relevance of the filioque in Catholic Literature (Cameron et al., 2016).
Christian iconography is another theological aspect discussed in literature. Parry (2007), comments on the idea of "reverence rather than worship," for the icons; to affirm its role as a "spiritual reflection" of those worshipped. [17] Furthermore, the canonization of Saints and those depicted in Eastern iconography include the foundational figures of this Church, such as the disciples Mathew, Mark, Luke and John, and prophets such as Elijah and Moses as to reflect the image of God as an aid for spiritual reverence and reflection. [18] Didron (1885) and Weitzmann (1960) comment on the importance of Byzantine art, noting its direct Christian inspiration and motives that characterized Western industrial, and religious use of icons in the Middle Ages. In further history, this increased value of these works due to their scarcity and veneration, benefiting the communal growth and exposure of Christianity throughout Europe, contributing further to a "Christian Boom". [19]
Colossians 1:15, "He is the image of the invisible God" supports the ideology of spiritual inheritance, whereby Christians of the Orthodox Church are born into the spirit, and through reverence, such as with iconography, model the actions of higher spiritual figures to preserve their own spiritual integrity. [20] This is to contrast from paganism, where Ephesians 5:5 states, "he who is covetous (an idolater), has no inheritance in the kingdom of Christ," as to account for the immoral act of "carving your own god," which would displace the teachings of the Trinity, and the Godhead seen in Eastern ministries, therefore rejecting Orthodox teachings. [21]
The Roman Catholic Church acts as the sister branch to the East–West Schism of 1054 AD as a split-off from the Eastern Orthodox Church (Koandreas, 2021). Christian literature follows the understanding of the filioque as an element of the Trinity under the ordination of Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas as is present in the variations of their literature, such as the Nicene and Apostles' Creeds. [22] Furthermore, the presence of a Pope in Catholicism differs from Eastern Orthodox beliefs, indicating a change present in their respective spiritual hierarchies as well as the acceptance of papal infallibility. [23]
Bennet (2018) admits the Catholic Church's "dissociation from the original text of the First Council of Constantinople," which is evident in the addition of the phrase καὶ τοῦ Υἱοῦ' (corresponding to the filioque) as the Catholic Creed differed from the Greek text of the Creed (879 AD–880 AD), even in the liturgical instances (Bennet, 2018). Likewise, the text "We believe..." (Greek: Πιστεύομεν) underwent a later change to "I believe..." (Greek: Πιστεύω) in Catholic, as well as Protestant (such as Lutheran and Anglican) Churches; which highlights the literature as "ultimately an individual confession of belief," but, may undermine the "expression of collective beliefs of the Church". [24]
The admission of a Pope in Catholic Literature undertakes a position of magisterium (a position of authority in the Roman Catholic Church), whereby spiritual authority and interpretation occurs through him (Douthat, 2018). The role of the Pope is to operate as an infallible example of the religion, meaning he is unable to fall into sin and manifests all matters of the Catholic Doctrine. [25] This differs from the beliefs of the Orthodox, who reject the idea of infallibility, instead accepting that "all humans too are subject to error and sin" (Kerr, 1979). This rejection of infallibility originates from the teachings of the Messiah in the fulfillment of Jesus' prophecy, whereby Jesus is the only one to embody the infallibility of a human as he is also part God. [26] This ideology is further exhibited in James 3:2, "If anyone does not stumble in what he says, he is a perfect man," rejecting the infallibility of all humans, extending to those in the Catholic patriarchy. [27]
This highlights the preservation of a spiritual order, which, in Catholicism involves papal and apostolic election as a God-given selection (Holland and Wills, 2015). The earliest accounts of Papal conclave (the gathering of College Cardinals to elect a bishop of Rome) began as early as 1059 AD, aligning with the split of Eastern Orthodoxy after the East-West Schism. [28] Baumgartner (2003) comments on the timing of the split, noting that the Catholic Ministers aimed to uphold a notable figurehead to retain both the integrity and premise of the Church, as well as the ideology of Jesus who himself was infallible. [29]
Similarly, the role of the Pope is also to produce literature. [30] As the magisterium, works of writing such as The Name of God is Mercy (2016) [31] and Walking with Jesus (2015) [32] are widely regarded forms of devotional literature in Catholicism; investigating the roles of virtue, reconciliation, mercy and charitability as measures of achieving sainthood and spiritual closeness with Christ. [33]
Filioque, a Latin term meaning "and from the Son", was added to the original Nicene Creed, and has been the subject of great controversy between Eastern and Western Christianity. The term refers to the Son, Jesus Christ, with the Father, as the one shared origin of the Holy Spirit. It is not in the original text of the Creed, attributed to the First Council of Constantinople (381), which says that the Holy Spirit proceeds "from the Father" without the addition "and the Son".
The Nicene Creed, also called the Creed of Constantinople, is the defining statement of belief of mainstream Christianity and in those Christian denominations that adhere to it. The original Nicene Creed was first adopted at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. According to a popular view forwarded by the Council of Chalcedon of 451, the Creed was amended in 381 by the First Council of Constantinople as "consonant to the holy and great Synod of Nice." However, there are some who comment on these ancient Councils who say "there is a failure of evidence" for this position since no one between the years of 381–451 thought of it in this light. Nonetheless, the amended form is presently referred to as the Nicene Creed or the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.
The Christian doctrine of the Trinity is the central doctrine concerning the nature of God in most Christian churches, which defines one God existing in three coequal, coeternal, consubstantial divine persons: God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit, three distinct persons (hypostases) sharing one essence/substance/nature (homoousion).
Sola scriptura is a Christian theological doctrine held by most Protestant Christian denominations, in particular the Lutheran and Reformed traditions, that posits the Bible as the sole infallible source of authority for Christian faith and practice. The Catholic Church considers it heresy and generally the Orthodox churches consider it to be contrary to the phronema of the Church.
This is an index page of Wikipedia articles related to the topic of religion.
Pneumatology refers to a particular discipline within Christian theology that focuses on the study of the Holy Spirit. The term is derived from the Greek word Pneuma, which designates "breath" or "spirit" and metaphorically describes a non-material being or influence. The English term pneumatology comes from two Greek words: πνεῦμα and λόγος. Pneumatology includes study of the person of the Holy Spirit, and the works of the Holy Spirit. This latter category also includes Christian teachings on new birth, spiritual gifts (charismata), Spirit-baptism, sanctification, the inspiration of prophets, and the indwelling of the Holy Trinity. Different Christian denominations have different theological approaches on various pneumatological questions.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Christian theology:
God the Father is a title given to God in Christianity. In mainstream trinitarian Christianity, God the Father is regarded as the first Person of the Trinity, followed by the second person, Jesus Christ the Son, and the third person, God the Holy Spirit. Since the second century, Christian creeds included affirmation of belief in "God the Father (Almighty)", primarily in his capacity as "Father and creator of the universe".
The East–West Schism, also known as the Great Schism or the Schism of 1054, is the break of communion between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches since 1054. A series of ecclesiastical differences and theological disputes between the Greek East and Latin West preceded the formal split that occurred in 1054. Prominent among these were the procession of the Holy Spirit (Filioque), whether leavened or unleavened bread should be used in the Eucharist, iconoclasm, the coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans in 800, the Pope's claim to universal jurisdiction, and the place of the See of Constantinople in relation to the pentarchy.
Sacred tradition, also called holy tradition or apostolic tradition, is a theological term used in Christian theology. According to this theological position, sacred Tradition and Scripture form one deposit, so sacred Tradition is a foundation of the doctrinal and spiritual authority of Christianity and of the Bible. Thus, the Bible must be interpreted within the context of sacred Tradition and within the community of the denomination. The denominations that ascribe to this position are the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Assyrian churches.
Binitarianism is a Christian theology of two persons, personas, or aspects in one substance/Divinity. Classically, binitarianism is understood as a form of monotheism—that is, that God is absolutely one being—and yet with binitarianism there is a "twoness" in God, which means one God family. The other common forms of monotheism are "unitarianism", a belief in one God with one person, and "trinitarianism", a belief in one God with three persons.
In Christianity, God is the eternal, supreme being who created and preserves all things. Christians believe in a monotheistic, trinitarian conception of God, which is both transcendent and immanent. Christians believe in a singular God that exists in a Trinity, which consists of three persons: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. Christian teachings on the transcendence, immanence, and involvement of God in the world and his love for humanity exclude the belief that God is of the same substance as the created universe but accept that God the Son assumed hypostatically united human nature, thus becoming man in a unique event known as "the Incarnation".
Catholic theology is the understanding of Catholic doctrine or teachings, and results from the studies of theologians. It is based on canonical scripture, and sacred tradition, as interpreted authoritatively by the magisterium of the Catholic Church. This article serves as an introduction to various topics in Catholic theology, with links to where fuller coverage is found.
The Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church have been in a state of official schism from one another since the East–West Schism of 1054. This schism was caused by historical and language differences, and the ensuing theological differences between the Western and Eastern churches.
Christian theology is the theology – the systematic study of the divine and religion – of Christian belief and practice. It concentrates primarily upon the texts of the Old Testament and of the New Testament, as well as on Christian tradition. Christian theologians use biblical exegesis, rational analysis and argument. Theologians may undertake the study of Christian theology for a variety of reasons, such as in order to:
The history of Eastern Orthodox Christian theology begins with the life of Jesus and the forming of the Christian Church. Major events include the Chalcedonian schism of 451 with the Oriental Orthodox miaphysites, the Iconoclast controversy of the 8th and 9th centuries, the Photian schism (863-867), the Great Schism between East and West, and the Hesychast controversy. The period after the end of the Second World War in 1945 saw a re-engagement with the Greek, and more recently Syriac Fathers that included a rediscovery of the theological works of St. Gregory Palamas, which has resulted in a renewal of Orthodox theology in the 20th and 21st centuries.
For the majority of Christian denominations, the Holy Spirit, or Holy Ghost, is believed to be the third Person of the Trinity, a triune God manifested as God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit, each being God. Nontrinitarian Christians, who reject the doctrine of the Trinity, differ significantly from mainstream Christianity in their beliefs about the Holy Spirit. In Christian theology, pneumatology is the study of the Holy Spirit. Due to Christianity's historical relationship with Judaism, theologians often identify the Holy Spirit with the concept of the Ruach Hakodesh in Jewish scripture, on the theory that Jesus was expanding upon these Jewish concepts. Similar names, and ideas, include the Ruach Elohim, Ruach YHWH, and the Ruach Hakodesh. In the New Testament the Holy Spirit is identified with the Spirit of Christ, the Spirit of Truth, and the Paraclete (helper).
The different Denominations of Christianity have variations in their teachings regarding the Holy Spirit.
The history of the filioque controversy is the historical development of theological controversies within Christianity regarding three distinctive issues: the orthodoxy of the doctrine of procession of the Holy Spirit as represented by the Filioque clause, the nature of anathemas mutually imposed by conflicted sides during the Filioque controversy, and the liceity (legitimacy) of the insertion of the Filioque phrase into the Nicene Creed. Although the debates over the orthodoxy of the doctrine of procession and the nature of related anathemas preceded the question of the admissibility of the phrase as inserted into the Creed, all of those issues became linked when the insertion received the approval of the Pope in the eleventh century.
The position of the Eastern Orthodox Church regarding the Filioque controversy is defined by their interpretation of the Bible, and the teachings of the Church Fathers, creeds and definitions of the seven Ecumenical Councils, as well as the decisions of several particular councils of the Eastern Orthodox Church.
After the Bible, Christian devotional literature has provided the most popular and instructive kind of reading and guidance for believers. Most broadly considered, Christian devotional literature may be thought to encompass any inscribed verbal artifact employed to stimulate the production, sustenance, and direction of the unique interior Christian self, whether solely in relation to the divine or including also service to fellow believers, neighbor, and/or world.
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