Circassian diaspora

Last updated

Circassians
Адыгэхэр (Adyghe)
Адыгэхэр (Kabardian)
Circassian flag.svg
Circassian flag
Circassian diaspora.png
Map of the Circassian diaspora
Total population
c. 5.3 million
Regions with significant populations
Flag of Turkey.svg Turkey 2,000,000–3,000,000 [1] [2] [3]
Flag of Russia.svg  Russia 751,487 [4]
Flag of Jordan.svg Jordan 250,000 [5] [3]
Flag of Syria.svg Syria 80,000–120,000 [3] [6] [7] [8] [9]
Flag of Egypt.svg Egypt 50,000[ citation needed ]
Flag of Germany.svg Germany 40,000 [3] [10]
Flag of Libya.svg Libya 35,000 [11]
Flag of Iraq.svg Iraq 34,000 [12]
Flag of the United States.svg United States 25,000 [12] [ better source needed ]
Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg Saudi Arabia 23,000[ citation needed ]
Flag of Iran.svg Iran 5,000–50,000 [13]
Flag of Israel.svg Israel 4,000–5,000 [14] [15] [16]
Flag of Uzbekistan.svg  Uzbekistan 1,257 [17]
Flag of Ukraine.svg  Ukraine 1,001 [18]
Flag of Poland.svg  Poland 1,000 [19] [20] [21]
Flag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands 500 [22]
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg  Canada 400 [23]
Flag of Belarus.svg  Belarus 116 [24]
Flag of Turkmenistan.svg  Turkmenistan 54 [25]
Languages
Native:
West Circassian, East Circassian
Diaspora:
Turkish, Russian, Arabic, English, German, Persian, Hebrew
Religion
Majority: Sunni Islam [13]
Minority:
Christianity (mostly Eastern Orthodoxy, but also Catholicism), [26] Circassian paganism, [27] irreligion [28]
Related ethnic groups
Abazgi peoples (Abkhaz, Abazin), Chechens
Part of a series on the
Circassians
Адыгэхэр
Circassian arrows.svg
List of notable Circassians
Circassian genocide
Circassian diaspora
Circassian tribes

Surviving

Destroyed or barely existing

Religion
Religion in Circassia
Languages and dialects
History
Show
Culture

The Circassian diaspora are ethnic Circassian people around the world who live outside their homeland Circassia. The majority of the Circassians live in the diaspora, as their ancestors were settled during the resettlement of the Circassian population, especially during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. From 1763 to 1864, the Circassians fought against the Russian Empire in the Russian-Circassian War, finally succumbing to a scorched-earth genocide campaign initiated between 1862 and 1864. [29] [30] Afterwards, large numbers of Circassians were exiled and deported to the Ottoman Empire and other nearby regions; others were resettled in Russia far from their home territories. [31] [32] Circassians live in more than fifty countries, besides the Republic of Adygea. [33] Total population estimates differ: according to some sources, some two million live in Turkey, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq; [34] other sources say between one and four million live in Turkey alone. [35]

Contents

Middle East

A large number of Circassians began arriving in the Levant in the 1860s and 1870s through resettlement by the Ottoman Empire for political or military reasons (in many cases). The Ottomans settled them in areas with Muslim minorities and populations that were otherwise of concern to the government; moreover, the dispersion of the Circassians, a warrior people, diminished their possible military threat. An estimated 600 Circassian villages are in Central and Western Anatolia. Likewise, Circassians who moved to Jordan were settled there to counter possible Bedouin attacks. There is a sizeable Circassian population in Syria, which has, to a great extent, preserved its original culture and even its language. [36]

Turkey

Circassians are regarded by historians to play a key role in the history of Turkey. Turkey has the largest Adyghe population in the world, around half of all Circassians live in Turkey, mainly in the provinces of Samsun and Ordu (in Northern Turkey), Kahramanmaraş (in Southern Turkey), Kayseri (in Central Turkey), Bandırma, and Düzce (in Northwest Turkey), along the shores of the Black Sea; the region near the city of Ankara. All citizens of Turkey are considered Turks by the government, but it is estimated that approximately two million ethnic Circassians live in Turkey. The "Circassians" in question do not always speak the languages of their ancestors, and in some cases some of them may describe themselves as "only Turkish". The reason for this loss of identity is mostly due to Turkey's Government assimilation policies [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] and marriages with non-Circassians. Circassians are regarded by historians to play a key role in the history of Turkey. Some of the exiles and their descendants gained high positions in the Ottoman Empire. Most of the Young Turks were of Circassian origin. Until the end of the First World War, many Circassians actively served in the army. In the period after the First World War, Circassians came to the fore in Anatolia as a group of advanced armament and organizational abilities as a result of the struggle they fought with the Russian troops until they came to the Ottoman lands. However, the situation of the Ottoman Empire after the war caused them to be caught between the different balances of power between Istanbul and Ankara and even become a striking force. For this period, it is not possible to say that Circassians all acted together as in many other groups in Anatolia. The Turkish government removed 14 Circassian villages from Gönen and Manyas regions in December 1922, May and June 1923, without separating women and children, and drove them to different places in Anatolia from Konya to Sivas and Bitlis. This incident had a great impact on the assimilation of Circassians. After 1923, Circassians were restricted by policies such as the prohibition of Circassian language, [37] [40] [44] [45] [41] [50] [47] [51] [42] changing village names, and surname law [41] [42] [43] Circassians, who had many problems in maintaining their identity comfortably, were seen as a group that inevitably had to be assimilated.

Iran

The diaspora of Circassians in Iran dates back to the end of the 15th century, when Jonayd of the Ak Koyunlu raided regions of Circassia and carried off prisoners. [52] However, the real large influx of Circassians started by the time of Shah Tahmasp I of the Safavid dynasty, who in four campaigns deported some 30,000 Circassians and Georgians back to Iran. Tahmasp's successors, most notably Shah Abbas, all the way till the time of the Qajar dynasty continued to deport and import hundreds of thousands of Circassians to Iran, while a lesser amount migrated voluntarily. Following the mass expulsion of the native Circassians of the northwest Caucasus in 1864, some of them also migrated to Qajar Iran, where some of these deportees from after 1864 rose to various high ranks such as in the Persian Cossack Brigade, where every member of the army was either Circassian, or any other type of ethnos from the Caucasus. [53] The Circassians in Iran played an important and crucial role in the army, civil administration, and royal harems over the many centuries. [54] Today, they are the third-largest Caucasus derived group in the nation after the Armenians and Georgians. [55]

Egypt

Aziz Pasha Abaza of the House of Abaza, the largest Circassian clan in Egypt Aziz Pasha Abaza `zyz bsh 'bZ@.jpg
Aziz Pasha Abaza of the House of Abaza, the largest Circassian clan in Egypt

The Circassian diaspora may date back to the end of the fourteenth century: the Circassian population in Egypt claims its descendance from the Mamluks who, during the Mamluk Sultanate, ruled Egypt and Syria. [36] One exception to this is the Abazin community in Egypt which conglomerates in the powerful Abaza Family that claims descent from an Abazin "beloved" female "elder." [56] In Egypt, the Abkhazians took – or were given – the last name "Abaza". [56]

Syria

In 1987, Syria was home to approximately 100,000 Circassians, about half of whom lived in Hauran province, [57] with many located in the Golan Heights. During the time of the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon (1920–1946), Circassians served with the French troops in the "escadron tcherkesse" (Cherkess squadron), earning them enduring distrust from the Syrian Sunni Arabs. [57]

In Quneitra and the Golan Region, there was a large Circassian community. In 1938, Several Circassian leaders wanted, for the same reasons as their Assyrian, Kurdish and Bedouin counterparts in Al-Jazira province in 1936–1937, a special autonomy status for their region. This was because they feared the prospect of living in an independent Syrian republic under a nationalist Arab government hostile towards the minorities that had collaborated with the colonial power. They also wanted the Golan region to become a national homeland for Circassian refugees from the Caucasus. A Circassian battalion served in the French army and had helped it against the Arab nationalist uprisings. Like in Al-Jazira Province, the French authorities refused to grant any autonomy status to the Golan Circassians. [58]

Statue of Satanaya in the Circassian village of Beer Ajam, Syria, before destruction Beerajam 0011.jpg
Statue of Satanaya in the Circassian village of Beer Ajam, Syria, before destruction

The Circassians of Syria were actively involved in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war as a unit under the leadership of Jawad Anzor. 200 Circassians were killed in action. They performed well, but the overall failure to stop the founding of Israel led to the special Circassian unit being disbanded.[ citation needed ] After the Six-Day War of 1967, they withdrew further into Syria, especially to Damascus and Aleppo. They were prevented from returning to the Golan Heights by Israeli occupying forces, but after 1973 some of the returned. They are now living in two villages, Beer Ajam and Bariqa, where they maintain a traditionally Circassian way of life. [59]

The Circassians in Syria are generally well off. They have very good relations with minorities like Alawites, Druze, Christians and Jews. Many of them work for the government, in civil service, or for the military. The former Syrian interior minister and director of the military police, Bassam Abdel Majeed, was a Circassian. [60] All Circassians learn Arabic and English in school; many speak Adyghe language, but their numbers are dwindling. One kindergarten in Damascus provides Adyghe language education. However, there are no Circassian newspapers, and few Circassian books are printed in Syria.[ citation needed ] Cultural events play an important role in maintaining the ethnic identity of the Circassians. During holidays and weddings, they perform folk dances and songs in their traditional dress. [57]

Jordan

Between 1878 and 1904, Circassians founded five villages in Jordan: Amman (1878), Wadi al-Sir (1880), Jerash (1884), Na'ur (1901), and al-Rusayfa (1904). [61] Since then, the Circassians have had a major role in the development of Jordan, holding high positions in the Jordanian government, armed forces, air force and police. [62] [ self-published source ] In 1921, Circassians were granted the position of the personal trusted royal guards of King Abdullah the First. Since then, the Circassians have been the royal guard, serving all four of the Jordanian Kings, King Abdullah the First, King Talal the First, King Hussein the First and King Abdullah the Second. [63] In 1932, the Circassian Charity Association was established, making it the second oldest charity group in Jordan. In 1944, Al-Ahli Club was founded, which is a Circassian sports club. In 1950, Al-Jeel Al-Jadeed club opened, aiming to preserve the Circassian Culture. In 2009, the Circassian Culture Academy was founded, aiming to preserve the Circassian language, which comprises the closely related Adyghe and Kabardian languages (considered to be dialects of Circassian by some linguists). In 1994, the Al-Ahli Club established a Circassian folklore dance troupe. The Circassian Culture Academy also has a Circassian Folklore Dance troupe named the Highlanders.

On 21 May 2011, the Circassian community in Jordan organised a protest in front of the Russian embassy in opposition to the Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics, because the site of the Games was allegedly being built over the site of mass graves of Circassians killed during the Circassian genocide of 1864. [64]

Iraq

Iraq is home to approximately 35,000 Circassians, of mainly West Circassian origin. The Adyghes came to Iraq in two waves: directly from Circassia, and later from the Balkans. They settled in all parts of Iraq – from north to south – but most of all in Iraq's capital Baghdad. It has been reported that there are 30,000 Adyghe families just in Baghdad alone. Many also settled in Kerkuk, Diyala, Fallujah, and other places. Circassians played a major role in different periods throughout Iraq's history, and made great contributions to political and military institutions in the country, to the Iraqi Army in particular. Several Iraqi Prime Ministers have been of Circassian descent.

The Iraqi Circassians mainly speak Mesopotamian Arabic and West Circassian.

Israel

There are five to ten thousand Circassians in Israel, living mostly in Kfar Kama (5,005) and Rehaniya (5,000). These two villages were a part of a larger group of Circassian villages around the Golan Heights. As is the case with Jewish Israelis, and the Druze population living within Israel, Circassian men must complete mandatory military service upon reaching the age of majority. Many Circassians in Israel are employed in the security forces, including in the Israel Border Police, the Israel Defense Forces, the Israel Police and the Israel Prison Service. [65] [66]

Libya

Around 35,000 Circassians live in Libya, most of them are in the city of Misurata 200 km east of Tripoli. [67]

Europe

Kosovo

A small minority of Circassians had lived in Kosovo Polje since the late 1880s, as mentioned by Noel Malcolm in his seminal work about that province, but they were repatriated to the Republic of Adygea in southern Russia in the late 1990s. [68]

Poland

A small population of 26 Circassian-speakers lived in Congress Poland in the Russian Partition of Poland, according to the 1897 census. [69]

Romania

There is evidence for the presence of people in the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia with names derived from the Circassians. [70] Furthermore, following the Circassian genocide, around 10,000 Circassians settled in Northern Dobruja, a region now pertaining to Romania. They were later expelled as agreed in the Treaty of San Stefano of 1878, which gave the region to Romania, avoiding any prominent contact between the Romanian state and the Dobrujan Circassians. [71] [72]

Current situation

Circassians refer to their diaspora as a genocide; the diaspora is "perhaps the most pressing issue in the region and the most difficult to solve."[ citation needed ] In 2006, the Russian State Duma refused to accept a petition by the Circassian Congress that would have called the Russian–Circassian War an act of genocide. [34] Hazret Sovmen, President of the Republic of Adygea from 2002 to 2007, referred to the Circassian diaspora as an enduring tragedy and a national catastrophe, claiming the Circassians live in more than fifty countries across the world, most of them far from their "historical homeland". [73] The International Circassian Organization promotes the interests of Circassians, and the advent of the Internet has brought "a sort of virtual Circassian nation" into being. [74]

Statistics by country

Country Official figures %Current est. Circassian populationFurther information
Flag of Russia.svg  Russia 751,487(2021 census) [4] ——
Flag of Turkey.svg  Turkey (1965 census, Circassian speakers) [75] 1,400,000 [76] Circassians in Turkey
Flag of Syria.svg  Syria ——100,000 [77] Circassians in Syria
Flag of Jordan.svg  Jordan ——180,300 [78] Circassians in Jordan
Flag of Iraq.svg  Iraq ——35,000 Circassians in Iraq
Flag of Israel.svg  Israel ——4,000 [79] Circassians in Israel
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  United Kingdom ——3,000 [80] [81]
Flag of Kazakhstan.svg  Kazakhstan 1,700(1989 census) [82] ——
Flag of Uzbekistan.svg  Uzbekistan 1,300(1989 census) [83] ——
Flag of Ukraine.svg  Ukraine 1,100(2001 census) [84] ——
Flag of Georgia.svg  Georgia 800(1989 census) [85] ——
Flag of Azerbaijan.svg  Azerbaijan 600−700(1989 census) [86] ——
Flag of Austria.svg  Austria 300−500(2018 annually statistics)
Flag of Bulgaria.svg  Bulgaria 500(2011 census) [87] ——
Flag of Turkmenistan.svg  Turkmenistan 300−400(1995 census) [88] ——
Flag of Armenia.svg  Armenia 200(1989 census) [89] ——
Flag of Belarus.svg  Belarus 200(2009 census) [90] ——
Flag of Moldova.svg  Moldova 99(1989 census) [91] ——
Flag of Latvia.svg  Latvia 50−100(2018 annually statistics) [92] ——
Flag of Tajikistan.svg  Tajikistan 86(1989 census) [93] ——
Flag of Kyrgyzstan.svg  Kyrgyzstan 50(2009 census) [94] ——
Flag of Estonia.svg  Estonia 21(1989 census) [95] ——
Flag of Lithuania.svg  Lithuania 11(1989 census) [96] ——

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Demographics of Kyrgyzstan</span>

The Demographics of Kyrgyzstan is about the demographic features of the population of Kyrgyzstan, including population growth, population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population. The name Kyrgyz, both for the people and the country, means "forty tribes", a reference to the epic hero Manas who unified forty tribes against the Oirats, as symbolized by the 40-ray sun on the flag of Kyrgyzstan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ossetians</span> Iranian ethnic group of the Caucasus

The Ossetians, also known as Ossetes, Ossets, and Alans, are an Iranian ethnic group who are indigenous to Ossetia, a region situated across the northern and southern sides of the Caucasus Mountains. They natively speak Ossetic, an Eastern Iranian language of the Indo-European language family, with most also being fluent in Russian as a second language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Circassians</span> Northwest Caucasian ethnic group native to Circassia

The Circassians or Circassian people, also called Cherkess or Adyghe are a Northwest Caucasian ethnic group and nation who originated in Circassia, a region and former country in the North Caucasus. As a consequence of the Circassian genocide, which was perpetrated by the Russian Empire during the Russo-Circassian War in the 19th century, most of the Circassian people were exiled from their ancestral homeland and consequently began living in what was then the Ottoman Empire—that is, modern-day Turkey and the rest of the Middle East. In the early 1990s, the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization estimated that there are as many as 3.7 million Circassians in diaspora in over 50 countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kurdish population</span> Ethnic group

The Kurdish population is estimated to be between 30 and 45 million. Most Kurdish people live in Kurdistan, which today is split between Iranian Kurdistan, Iraqi Kurdistan, Turkish Kurdistan, and Syrian Kurdistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shapsugs</span> Circassian tribe

The Shapsug are one of the twelve major Circassian tribes. Historically, the Shapsug tribe comprised one of the largest groups of the Black Sea Adyghe. They inhabited the region between the Dzhubga River and the Shakhe Rivers and high-altitude mountainous areas of the northern slopes of the Caucasus range along the Antkhir, Abin, Afips, Bakan, Ships, and other rivers . In Russia, the remaining Shapsug population mainly live in the Tuapsinsky District (Tuapse) of Krasnodar Krai, Lazarevsky City District of Sochi, and in the Republic of Adygea, which were a small part of historical Circassia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baloch of Turkmenistan</span> Baloch ethnic people in Turkmenistan

Baloch or the Baloch of Turkmenistan are a small part of the greater Baloch people who live primarily in Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan. Turkmenistan has a population of 300,000 Baloch people who are permanent inhabitants.

Turks in Ukraine are people of Turkish ethnicity living in Ukraine. The first Turkish settlement started during the Ottoman rule of Ukraine. In addition, there has been modern migration to the country largely formed of Meskhetian Turks, followed by immigrants from Turkey and Turkish communities from other post-Ottoman territories, such as Turkish Cypriots from Northern Cyprus.

The Chechen diaspora is a term used to collectively describe the communities of Chechen people who live outside of Chechnya; this includes Chechens who live in other parts of Russia. There are also significant Chechen populations in other subdivisions of Russia.

Turks in Russia, also referred to as Turkish Russians or Russian Turks, refers to people of full or partial ethnic Turkish origin who have either immigrated to Russia or who were born in the Russian state. The community is largely made up of several migration waves, including: descendants of Ottoman-Turkish captives during the Russo-Turkish wars; the Turkish Meskhetian community; and the more recent Turkish immigrants from the Republic of Turkey.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Circassian nationalism</span>

Circassian nationalism is the desire among Circassians worldwide to preserve their genes, heritage and culture, save their language from extinction, raise awareness about the Circassian genocide, return to Circassia and establish a completely autonomous or independent Circassian state in its pre-Russian invasion borders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turks in Kazakhstan</span> Ethnic Turks live in Kazakhstan

Turks in Kazakhstan are ethnic Turks who live in Kazakhstan, mostly from Meskheti after the Deportation of the Meskhetian Turks.

Turks in Uzbekistan are ethnic Turks who live in Uzbekistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kurds in Azerbaijan</span> Ethnic group

The Kurds in Azerbaijan form a part of the historically significant Kurdish population in the post-Soviet space. Kurds established a presence in the Caucasus with the establishment of the Kurdish Shaddadid dynasty in the 10th and 11th centuries. Some Kurdish tribes were recorded in Karabakh by the end of the sixteenth century. However, virtually the entire contemporary Kurdish population in the modern Azerbaijan descends from migrants from 19th-century Qajar Iran.

Ingiloys are an ethnographic subgroup of Georgians who speak the Ingiloy dialect of Georgian. Ingiloys are indigenous to Saingilo, a cultural and historical region located in the northwest of present-day Azerbaijan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russians in Azerbaijan</span> Ethnic group in Azerbaijan

Russians in Azerbaijan are the second largest ethnic minority in Azerbaijan and is also the largest Russian community in the South Caucasus and one of the largest outside of Russia. Although in decline, the community still numbers 71,000 people as of 2019. Since their arrival at the beginning of the 19th century, the Russians have played an important role in all spheres of life, particularly during the Czarist and Soviet period, especially in the capital city of Baku.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kurds in Georgia</span> Ethnic group in Georgia

The Kurds in Georgia form a major part of the historically significant Kurdish population in the post-Soviet space, and are members of the eponymous ethnic group that are citizens of Georgia. In the 20th century, most Kurds fled religious persecution in the Ottoman Empire to the Russian Empire. The return of their Kurdish surnames needs effort according to a Kurdish activist in Georgia. The Kurds also have their own schools, school books and a printing press in Georgia. Illiteracy among them disappeared in the early 1900s. Kurds in Georgia are politically neutral; however, in 1999 they staged a huge demonstration in Tbilisi, demanding the release of the founder of the Kurdistan Workers' Party, Abdullah Öcalan. Kurds in Georgia today use Cyrillic script. Earlier, in the 1920s, they used the Latin script.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kurds in Russia</span> Ethnic group in Russia

Kurds in Russia form a major part of the historically significant Kurdish population in the post-Soviet space, with close ties to the Kurdish communities in the Caucasus and Central Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kurds in Turkmenistan</span> Ethnic group in Turkmenistan

The Kurds in Turkmenistan form a part of the historically significant Kurdish population in the post-Soviet space, and encompass people born in or residing in Turkmenistan who are of Kurdish origin. In the 17th century, Abbas I of Persia and Nader Shah settled Kurdish tribes from Khuzestan alongside the Iranian-Turkmen border. More Kurds arrived to Turkmenistan in the 19th century to find unclaimed land and to escape starvation.

Azerbaijanis in Kazakhstan are part of the greater Azerbaijani diaspora. They are Kazakh citizens and permanent residents of ethnic Azerbaijani background. According to the 2009 census, there were 85,292 ethnic Azerbaijanis living in Kazakhstan; Azerbaijanis comprised 0.5% of Kazakhstan's population and were the country's tenth-largest ethnic minority.

Tatars in Azerbaijan are Azerbaijani citizens and people of Tatar origin. According to the 2009 census, 25,882 Tatars live in the Republic of Azerbaijan. This is 0.29% of the total population.

References

Footnotes
  1. ↑ Richmond, Walter (2013). The Circassian Genocide. Rutgers University Press. p. 130. ISBN   978-0813560694.
  2. ↑ Danver, Steven L. (2015). Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. p. 528. ISBN   978-1317464006.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Zhemukhov, Sufian (2008). "Circassian World Responses to the New Challenges" (PDF). PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo No. 54: 2. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  4. 1 2 "Национальный состав населения". Federal State Statistics Service . Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  5. ↑ "Израйльский сайт ИзРус". Archived from the original on 30 October 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
  6. ↑ "Syrian Circassians returning to Russia's Caucasus region". TRTWorld. TRTWorld and agencies. 2015. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 8 May 2016. Currently, approximately 80,000 ethnic Circassians live in Syria after their ancestors were forced out of the northern Caucasus by Russians between 1863 and 1867.
  7. ↑ "Syria" Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Library of Congress
  8. ↑ "Независимые английские исследования". Archived from the original on 8 May 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
  9. ↑ "single | The Jamestown Foundation". Jamestown. Jamestown.org. 7 May 2013. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  10. ↑ Lopes, Tiago André Ferreira. "The Offspring of the Arab Spring" (PDF). Strategic Outlook. Observatory for Human Security (OSH). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2018. Retrieved 16 June 2013.
  11. ↑ "Via Jamestown Foundation". Jamestown. Archived from the original on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
  12. 1 2 "Adyghe by country". Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
  13. 1 2 "Circassians in Iran". Caucasus Times. 9 February 2018.
  14. ↑ Besleney, Zeynel Abidin (2014). The Circassian Diaspora in Turkey: A Political History. Routledge. p. 96. ISBN   978-1317910046.
  15. ↑ Torstrick, Rebecca L. (2004). Culture and Customs of Israel. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 46. ISBN   978-0313320910.
  16. ↑ Louër, Laurence (2007). To be an Arab in Israel. Columbia University Press. p. 20. ISBN   978-0231140683.
  17. ↑ "Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР" (in Russian). Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  18. ↑ "The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue". 2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  19. ↑ "Circassian Princes in Poland: The Five Princes, by Marcin Kruszynski". www.circassianworld.com. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
  20. ↑ "Polish-Circassian Relation in 19th Century, by Radosław Żurawski vel Grajewski". www.circassianworld.com. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
  21. ↑ "Polonya'daki Çerkes Prensler: Beş Prens". cherkessia.net. 26 December 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
  22. ↑ Zhemukhov, Sufian, Circassian World: Responses to the New Challenges, archived from the original on 12 October 2009
  23. ↑ Hildebrandt, Amber (14 August 2012). "Russia's Sochi Olympics awakens Circassian anger". CBC News .
  24. ↑ "Национальный статистический комитет Республики Беларусь" (PDF) (in Belarusian). Statistics of Belarus. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2013.
  25. ↑ "Итоги всеобщей переписи населения Туркменистана по национальному составу в 1995 году" (in Russian). Archived from the original on 13 March 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  26. ↑ James Stuart Olson, ed. (1994). An Ethnohistorical dictionary of the Russian and Soviet empires. Greenwood. p. 329. ISBN   978-0-313-27497-8 . Retrieved 15 October 2011.
  27. ↑ 2012 Survey Maps Archived 20 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine . "Ogonek". No 34 (5243), 27 August 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  28. ↑ Svetlana Lyagusheva (2005). "Islam and the Traditional Moral Code of Adyghes". Iran and the Caucasus. 9 (1): 29–35. doi:10.1163/1573384054068123. JSTOR   4030903 – via Brill. in February 1996... Respondents in the 20–35 age group... 26 percent considered themselves atheists...
  29. ↑ Allen and Muratoff 107–108.
  30. ↑ Shawkat.
  31. ↑ Brooks [ page needed ].
  32. ↑ Shenfield. [ page needed ]
  33. ↑ Richmond 2.
  34. 1 2 Richmond 172-73.
  35. ↑ Stokes 152.
  36. 1 2 Hille 50.
  37. 1 2 Ayhan Aktar, "Cumhuriyet'in Đlk Yıllarında Uygulanan 'Türklestirme' Politikaları," in Varlık Vergisi ve 'Türklestirme' Politikaları,2nd ed. (Istanbul: Iletisim, 2000), 101.
  38. ↑ Davison, Roderic H. (2013). Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West. University of Texas Press. p. 3. ISBN   978-0292758940. Archived from the original on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
  39. ↑ Sofos, Umut Özkırımlı; Spyros A. (2008). Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 167. ISBN   9780231700528.
  40. 1 2 Soner, Çağaptay (2006). Otuzlarda Türk Milliyetçiliğinde Irk, Dil ve Etnisite (in Turkish). İstanbul. pp. 25–26.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  41. 1 2 3 Toktas, Sule (2005). "Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey's Jewish Minority". Journal of Historical Sociology. 18 (4): 400. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6443.2005.00262.x. S2CID   59138386. Archived from the original on 3 May 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
  42. 1 2 3 Suny, edited by Ronald Grigor; Goçek,, Fatma Müge; Naimark, Norman M. (23 February 2011). A question of genocide : Armenians and Turks at the end of the Ottoman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-539374-3.{{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. 1 2 İnce, Başak (26 April 2012). Citizenship and identity in Turkey : from Atatürk's republic to the present day. Londra: I.B. Tauris. ISBN   978-1-78076-026-1.
  44. 1 2 Kieser, ed. by Hans-Lukas (2006). Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Londra [u.a.]: Tauris. p. 45. ISBN   9781845111410. Archived from the original on 13 October 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2013.{{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  45. 1 2 Ertürk, Nergis (19 October 2011). Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780199746682.
  46. ↑ Sofos, Umut Özkırımlı & Spyros A. (2008). Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 167. ISBN   9780231700528 . Retrieved 8 January 2013.
  47. 1 2 editor, Sibel Bozdoǧan, Gülru Necipoğlu, editors; Julia Bailey, managing (2007). Muqarnas : an annual on the visual culture of the Islamic world. Leiden: Brill. ISBN   9789004163201.{{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ↑ Aslan, Senem (17 May 2007). ""Citizen, Speak Turkish!": A Nation in the Making". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 13 (2): 245–272. doi:10.1080/13537110701293500. S2CID   144367148.
  49. ↑ Suny, Ronald Grigor; Göçek, Fatma Müge; Naimark, Norman M. (2 February 2011). A Question of Genocide: Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-978104-1.
  50. ↑ Sofos, Umut Özkırımlı & Spyros A. (2008). Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 167. ISBN   9780231700528.
  51. ↑ Aslan, Senem (April 2007). ""Citizen, Speak Turkish!": A Nation in the Making". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. Vol. 13, no. 2. Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 245–272.
  52. ↑ Eskandar Beg, I, pp. 17-18
  53. ↑ "The Iranian Armed Forces in Politics, Revolution and War: Part One". 22 May 2012. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
  54. ↑ P Bushkovitch, Princes Cherkasskii or Circassian Murzas, pp.12-13
  55. ↑ Facts On File, Incorporated (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. Facts On File library of world history. Facts On File, Incorporated. p. 141. ISBN   978-1-4381-2676-0.
  56. 1 2 Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot, Egypt in the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha, pp. 123–124.
  57. 1 2 3 "Syria."
  58. ↑ M. Proux, "Les Tcherkesses", La France méditerranéenne et africaine, IV, 1938
  59. ↑ Stokes 154–55.
  60. ↑ "Al-Ahram Weekly | Region | Strengthening the line". Archived from the original on 24 December 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  61. ↑ Hamed-Troyansky, Vladimir (2017). "Circassian Refugees and the Making of Amman, 1878–1914". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 49 (4): 605–623. doi:10.1017/S0020743817000617. S2CID   165801425.
  62. ↑ Natho, Kadir (2009). Circassian History. Xlibris Corporation. p. 485. ISBN   978-1-4415-2389-1.
  63. ↑ Wallace, Charles (17 May 1987). "Circassians' Special Niche in Jordan : 'Cossacks' Seem out of Place in Arab Palace". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
  64. ↑ Stephen Shenfield, "CircassianWorld," 2006, "THE CIRCASSIANS - A FORGOTTEN GENOCIDE?" http://www.circassianworld.com/pdf/A_Forgotten_Genocide.pdf
  65. ↑ Slackman, Michael (10 August 2006). "Seeking Roots Beyond the Nation They Helped Establish". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 17 February 2023.
  66. ↑ "Circassians in bid to save language: Diaspora in Jordan attempt to revive their ancient language before it dies out." Al Jazeera English, 14 May 2010 http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2010/05/201051411954269319.html
  67. ↑ Zhemukhov, Sufian (5 September 2011). "Влияние арабских революций на черкесский мир". Echo of Moscow (in Russian).
  68. ↑ "Circassians flee Kosovo conflict."
  69. ↑ "Привислинские губернии". Demoscope Weekly. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
  70. ↑ Cosniceanu, Maria (2013). "Nume de familie provenite de la etnonime (I)". Philologia (in Romanian). 266 (1–2): 75–81.
  71. ↑ Tița, Diana (16 September 2018). "Povestea dramatică a cerchezilor din Dobrogea". Historia (in Romanian).
  72. ↑ Parlog, Nicu (2 December 2012). "Cerchezii: misterioasa națiune pe ale cărei pământuri se desfășoară Olimpiada de la Soci". Descoperă.ro (in Romanian).
  73. ↑ Richmond 1-2.
  74. ↑ Richmond xii.
  75. ↑ Heinz Kloss & Grant McConnel, Linguistic composition of the nations of the world, vol,5, Europe and USSR, Québec, Presses de l'Université Laval, 1984, ISBN   2-7637-7044-4
  76. ↑ "Turkey - People Groups. Adyghe and Kabardian". Joshua Project.
  77. ↑ Lopes, Tiago Ferreira. "The Offspring of the Arab Spring" (PDF). Strategic Outlook. Observatory for Human Security (OSH). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2018. Retrieved 16 June 2013.
  78. ↑ "Jordan - People Groups. Adyghe and Kabardian". Joshua Project.
  79. ↑ "Circassians Are Israel's Other Muslims". FORWARD. 20 August 2012. Retrieved 22 March 2014.
  80. ↑ Khadipash, Marina (17 January 2015). "Обойдя весь мир - возвращайся домой, или хроники Лондонской жизни". Circassian Culture Foundation (in Russian). Retrieved 1 February 2024.
  81. ↑ "London Abkhaz-Adyghe Association Launches Aid Campaign for Earthquake victims in Turkey". Abkhaz World. 7 February 2023. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
  82. ↑ Demoscope. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР (in Russian). Demoscope.ru. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
  83. ↑ Demoscope. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР (in Russian). Demoscope.ru. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
  84. ↑ "The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue". Ukrainian Census (2001) . Retrieved 9 July 2012.
  85. ↑ Demoscope. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР (in Russian). Demoscope.ru. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
  86. ↑ Demoscope. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР (in Russian). Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
  87. ↑ "ДОКЛАД за ПРЕБРОЯВАНЕТО НАНАСЕЛЕНИЕТО В БЪЛГАРИЯ 2011г" (in Bulgarian). Archived from the original on 31 January 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2014– via Scribd.
  88. ↑ Итоги всеобщей переписи населения Туркменистана по национальному составу в 1995 году.. asgabat.net (in Russian). Archived from the original on 13 March 2013. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
  89. ↑ Demoscope. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР (in Russian). Archived from the original on 4 January 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
  90. ↑ Национальный статистический комитет Республики Беларусь (PDF). Национальный статистический комитет Республики Беларусь (in Russian). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2013. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
  91. ↑ Demoscope. Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР (in Russian). Demoscope.ru. Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
  92. ↑ "Latvijas iedzīvotāju sadalījums pēc nacionālā sastāva un valstiskās piederības (Datums=01.01.2014)" (PDF) (in Latvian). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
  93. ↑ "Таджикская ССР". Demoscope Weekly. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
  94. ↑ "3.1. Численность постоянного населения по национальностям" (PDF) (in Russian). Retrieved 22 August 2018.
  95. ↑ "Эстонская ССР". Demoscope Weekly. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
  96. ↑ "Литовская ССР". Demoscope Weekly. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
Bibliography
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.