Religion in Circassia

Religion in Circassia refers to religious presence in historical Circassia and modern-day Adygea, Kabardino-Balkaria, Krasnodar Krai and Karachai-Cherkessia. The majority of ethnic Circassians today are Muslim while a minority retain Orthodox Christian or pagan beliefs. ^[1] Historically, Circassians were predominantly Christians from the 3rd century to the 16th century, and later they gradually began converting to Islam. ^{[2] [3] [4] [5]}

History

Circassia gradually went through following various religions: Paganism, Christianity, and then Islam. ^[6]

Paganism

Main article: Circassian paganism

Before encountering Abrahamic religions, the Circassians believed in their traditional religion. The foundation of this religion is the worship of the chief god, Thashkho (Adyghe : Тхьэшхо, lit.  'Great God'). ^{[7] [5] [8] [9]} Some classify this religion as polytheistic, while others as monotheistic. ^[8] Thashkho has attributes such as "needed by all, but needing no one," "creating from nothing, the multiplier," and "allowing the cycle of the universe." ^[9]

All beings are essentially one and part of an eternal cycle; only Thashkho, the creator, is unaffected by this cycle. Prayers to Thashkho were made as "Good God, we wretches pray to you." ^[7] Thashkho also has lesser deities subordinate to him. ^[9] The beginning of the world is associated with the formation of the great emptiness or the universe (Adyghe : Хы). Thashkho created the universe and order, and the rest developed spontaneously. The symbol of the Circassian religion is the T symbol. ^[10]

According to Leonti Lyulye, who traveled through Circassia, in the Circassian belief, souls were rewarded after death according to their deeds on earth. Therefore, the purpose of human earthly existence was the soul's perfection. ^[8] An important element was the spirit of the ancestors. ^[9] The spirits of the ancestors required commemoration: funeral feasts were held, and sacrifices or memorial meals were prepared and distributed in memory of the deceased souls. ^[9]

Two sacred oak trees in Tuapse. The pagan Shapsugs used to pray in front of these trees. The one in front was withered by the Russian authorities.

Before the Middle Ages, there were trade relations between the Circassians and the Greeks. The Circassian forest goddess Mezitha and the Greek forest god Pan are roughly the same person. The name of the Circassian bee goddess Merisse means "bee" in Greek. Other similarities can be found between Greek and Circassian beliefs: Greek mythology contains references to Circassia (such as Prometheus chained to Mount Elbrus). ^[11] Some have even claimed that this mythology originated in Circassia. ^[12]

Edmund Spencer described the traditional religion of the Circassians as follows: ^[13]

The principal articles in the faith of the inhabitants of the Western Caucasus are,—a firm belief in one God, supreme and powerful, and in the immortality of the soul, which they feel convinced will be translated to another world, the abode of their fathers.

Like the Mahometans (Muslims), they do not represent the Deity under any visible form, but define him as the Creator of all things, whose spirit is diffused over all space.

Besides the one Eternal God, they believe in the existence of several inferior beings, or saints, to whom the Great Spirit, Thka, has delegated power over such sublunary things as he deems too trivial for his awful superintendence. These saints have each an anniversary, which is celebrated with public rejoicing and prayer, in the same manner as festivals are in Catholic countries. Some of them are represented under a peculiar symbol; but they do not worship them, except as intermediate agents.

Upon this subject I made strict inquiry, and found that all my informants agreed as to this point, and which confirmed what I had previously heard from several Russian officers, who had been for many years in communication with the Circassians. Nevertheless, this worship must be regarded as a species of adoration by the strict Protestant and the equally rigid Mahometan.

Circassians had a tradition of burying the dead in high places. German traveler Johannes Schiltberger, who passed through Circassian lands in 1427, wrote the following: ^[14]

They (the Circassians) have a tradition of placing those who died from lightning strikes in coffins and hanging them from a tall tree. After this, neighbors arrive with food and drink. They begin dancing, partying, slaughtering oxen and rams, and distributing most of the meat to the poor. They do this for three days, repeating the process year after year until the bodies have completely decomposed. They consider the person struck by lightning to be a saint.

Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi wrote: ^{[15] [16]}

After performing various rituals, the storytellers gather people at the deceased's bedside. This is a surprising and rare sight. They then place the deceased in a special coffin, perched on the branches of a large tree in the mountains.

Sultan Barquq, the Circassian Mamluk ruler of medieval Egypt, was also buried in accordance with Circassian tradition; the coffin containing his body was hung from the ceiling of the mosque by the Circassian community. ^[17]

Judaism

During the 8th century, as a result of the settlement of approximately 20,000 Jews in Circassia and the establishment of relations with the Khazar Khaganate, a small number of Circassians embraced Judaism. ^{[5] [7] [18]} Although many aristocrats embraced the faith, only 59 Circassian commoners are known to have converted to Judaism. ^{[5] [19]} Over time, Judaism gave way to Christianity in Circassia. ^[5] The Circassians have co-existed with Jewish community of Nalchik for years. And during the 1990's the Jewish population in Circassia declined in most areas due to Immigration to Israel ^[20] Today there is a small but growing Jewish population in Sochi. ^[21]

Christianity

Orthodoxy

A Greek cross in Circassia, 1830s

It is the tradition of the early church that Christianity made its first appearance in Circassia in the 1st century AD via the travels and preaching of the Apostle Andrew, ^{[22] [5]} but recorded history suggests that, as a result of Greek and Byzantine influence, Christianity first spread throughout Circassia between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD. ^{[2] [3] [4]} In particular, the Byzantine Empire sent many clergy to the Circassian lands. ^[23]

With the growing influence of Georgia in the 12th century, Christianity became more widespread in Circassia. ^[24] Many churches were built under Georgian influence, especially in the southern regions; however, most of these were destroyed over time. ^[23] Christianity took root most strongly among the Circassian communities living in coastal areas. ^[25]

During this period, Jesus was considered not a central figure of God, but rather an entity added to the pantheon of deities. The chief deity was still Thashkho. The most significant change Christianity brought to the Circassian belief system was the physical representation of God through icons (Adyghe : Тхьэнапэ). These icons included the Mother of God (Adyghe : Тхьэнанэ) and the Holy Spirit (Adyghe : Тхьэм ипсэ). The Circassians called Christianity "Chelehstan" (Чэлэхьстэн) or "Chiristan" (Чыристэн[ыгъэ]) Christmas "Khurome" (Хъуромэ), Easter "Utizh" (ӏутӏыжь), priests "Shodjen" (Adyghe : Шэуджэн, Kabardian : Щоджэн) and pastors "Shekhnik." Religious ceremonies and prayers were conducted in Greek. ^[7] Furthermore, Elijah was held in high esteem, called "Yele" (Елэ), and associated with the lightning god Shible. ^{[20] [26]}

Johannes Schiltberger wrote: ^[27]

...There were Christian communities of Greek faith in Circassian lands. These people prayed in accordance with Greek religious traditions, invoking God in Yass (Alan) and Zikh (Circassian) languages.

For the Circassians, the most influential and revered figure in Christianity was St. George (Adyghe : Аушыджэр). Zikhia (Circassia) held a significant place in the Orthodox world. The region housed four ancient bishoprics: ^{[28] [29] [30]} Sinopoli, Phanagoria (Matrega), Nikopsia, and Tmutarakan. Towards the end of the 13th century, the Diocese of Zichia was elevated to metropolitan status. From 1318 onward, sources mention an independent Zichia metropolis known as "Zicho-Matarch." According to Priest Ricasdus, the Circassians considered themselves Orthodox Christians and used Greek as their written language. ^[5] Giorgio Interiano, who visited the region in the 16th century, described the Circassian beliefs as follows: ^{[23] [31]}

They call themselves Christians, and there are Greek clergy among them. However, they only baptize their children when they reach the age of eight. As is their custom, the clergy only sprinkle holy water on these children and recite a short prayer.

Catholicism

The first Catholic missionaries came to Caucasus in the 12th century. With the Sack of Constantinople, the spread of the Catholic faith in the region accelerated. During this period, Catholicism became particularly influential in the coastal regions of Circassia; the Circassian prince Ferzakht even became Catholic. The Pope sent him a letter of thanks in 1333 for his efforts. ^{[5] [32]}

As a result of the Catholic Church's missionary work, a Catholic Circassian community, referred to as Frenkkardashi  [ ru ] "Frank Brother" in Italian sources, emerged. ^[33] The Genoese also played an active role in spreading Catholicism among the Circassians. ^[23] In 1320, Pope John XXII strengthened the Catholic presence in the region by opening a cathedral in the city of Caffa. ^[24]

Taken as a slave to Genoa, John of Zichia converted to Catholicism there and joined the Franciscan Order, then returned to his homeland and engaged in missionary activities. In 1349 John of Zichia was appointed Archbishop of Matrega by Pope Clement VI. John of Zichia became one of the most prominent religious figures of the period. ^[34]

According to a Circassian legend, Circassian prince Inal the Blind gave his daughter to the Genoese leader in exchange for the Catholics leaving Circassia. ^[35] By 1439, two Catholic bishops and one archbishop were recorded as serving on the Taman Peninsula of Circassia. ^[24]

The decline of Christianity

Despite all these developments, Christianity never truly took root among the Circassian people. It merged with local pagan beliefs, transforming into a semi-pagan, semi-Christian faith. The Virgin Mary was considered both the Mother of God and the Goddess of Bees, while Jesus was identified with Thashkho, the Circassian chief deity. ^[10]

Following the Mongol invasions and Timur's campaigns, connections with the main churches in Circassia were severed, and bishoprics gradually disappeared. ^[36] With the outbreak of the Russo-Circassian War, Christianity began to be perceived by the Circassians as the "religion of the Russians." ^[5] As a result, those who maintained their Christian faith gradually abandoned their faith and Christianity began to face severe public backlash. ^{[5] [10] [37]} The last traces of Christianity in Circassia survived until the 1830s. ^[26]

Islam

Early periods

The Old Shapsug Mosque, Thaghapsh village. The only remaining 19th-century mosque in Sochi okrug.

The only Abrahamic religion that remained enduring among the Circassians was Islam. ^[10] A small Muslim community had existed in Circassia since the Middle Ages. In 815, two Arab da'is, Abu Iskhaq and Muhammad Kindi, came to Circassia to spread Islam; as a result of these activities, a small number of Circassians converted to Islam. ^{[5] [39]}

In 1382, Barquq, a Circassian of slave origin in Egypt, seized power and declared himself sultan. ^[40] During this period, the state became known as the "State of the Circassians" (Arabic : دولة الجراكسة). Although the majority of Circassians were not yet Muslim at the time, the Circassian Mamluks in Egypt were, and throughout the Mamluk sultanate, they strove to spread Islam in Circassia. ^[5]

With the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II severed the Circassians' ties with the Orthodox world, paving the way for their conversion to Islam. ^[5] Following this event, Islam gradually began to spread among the Circassians. ^[41] With the Ottomans' elimination of the Genoese remnants, Circassia's relationship with the Catholic world also ended. ^[5] According to historian Tursun Beg, the Ottomans' primary goal in this policy was to strengthen Islam among the Circassians. ^{[5] [42]}

With the conquest of Trebizond in 1461, Ottoman influence extended to Circassia, and many Circassian aristocrats embraced Sunni Islam. ^[23] However, even by the 16th century, Muslims were a minority in Circassia; most of the population still practiced Christianity or traditional pagan beliefs.

Conversion to Islam

The Kabardian Circassians had long been under Muslim influence from Dagestan and were therefore the first Circassian community to embrace Islam. ^[5] In 1570, some Kabardian aristocrats converted to Islam under the influence of the Tatars; ^[23] in 1578, the Grand Prince of Kabardia officially converted. Remains of mosques from this period survive to this day. ^[5]

In Western Circassia, Islam entered Circassian culture not directly, but through stories and folk tales. ^[23] Ceremonies celebrating the birth of the Prophet Muhammad gradually became common among the people. Following the Kabardians, the Hatuqway, Zhaney, Barakay (an Abazin tribe), and Besleney tribes also converted to Islam. ^[5]

Evliya Çelebi, who visited Circassia in 1666, wrote that mosques existed in the villages and that the people chanted "la ilahe illallah" (There is no god but Allah), but they failed to fully grasp Islam and continued their old traditions. ^{[5] [15]} During the same period, Katip Çelebi stated that some Circassians were Muslim, while others were still considered "infidels". ^[43] It is also known that a very small Shia community existed due to Iranian influence. ^[23]

In the 17th century, Christianity had largely lost its influence among the Circassians, and Islam was spreading superficially and slowly, intertwined with paganism. ^[24]

In the 17th century, Giovanni Luca wrote about the religion of the Circassians: ^[44]

...Some are followers of the religion of Muhammad, others practice the Byzantine Rite (Orthodox Christianity), but the first one is more numerous...

In 1717, Ottoman Sultan Murad IV ordered the acceleration of efforts to spread Islam in Circassia. ^[43] That same year, Crimean Khan Devlet III Giray issued an edict ordering the killing of Christian priests in the region and the burning of religious books. ^[26] By the late 18th century, Islam began to spread more rapidly among the Circassians. ^[45]

During this period, the Abzakh Circassians first converted to Islam. The Shapsugs, disturbed by the Abzakh's conversion to Islam, fought against them, but by the 1730s, the Shapsugs had also converted. ^[5] Then, the Natukhajs, resenting the Shapsugs' conversion to Islam, declared them traitors and declared war on them. ^[46] Nevertheless, the Natukhaj eventually started to embrace Islam ^[5] and even emblazoned the name of the Prophet Muhammad on their flag in the 19th century. ^[47]

While Islam slowly took root in the coastal regions, the people maintained their old beliefs and traditions for a time. ^[25] Among the Circassian principalities in the Kuban basin, Islam was much more established, although some of the old customs were preserved. ^[25] In 1737, Jabagh Qazanoqo was appointed chief judge of Kabarda and reformed the justice system, incorporating Quranic principles into the Adyghe Khabze. ^[48]

In 1779, with the encouragement of Ferah Ali Pasha, 85 new mosques were built in Circassia. ^[5] Then, in 1785, Sheikh Mansur arrived in the region and led the Circassians in attacks against Russian forces. His call led many Circassians to convert to Islam. However, Sheikh Mansur was later captured by the Russians and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg Fortress, where he spent the rest of his life. ^{[49] [50]}

The activities of wandering Sufis and the threat of invasion from Russia further accelerated the Islamization process in Circassia. ^{[5] [43] [51] [52]} Circassian scholars who grew up in Ottoman lands also played a significant role in this process. ^[7] Taitbout de Marigny, who visited the region in the 1820s, reported that the Circassians were predominantly Muslim, but they also respected the symbol of the Cross. ^[10]

Karl Heinrich Koch, who visited Circassia in the first half of the 19th century, described the religious beliefs of the Circassians: ^[7]

...It was possible for three different faiths to coexist simultaneously within a Circassian family. The grandfather might worship natural forces and sacred trees, while the father might embrace Christianity and the son might become Muslim. Most strikingly, there was no conflict or disagreement between these different faiths...

Throughout the 19th century, the vast majority of Circassians were Muslim. ^[23] In 1826, Islam was declared the official religion of all Circassia. ^[5] That same year, Hasan Pasha abolished the privileges granted to the nobles of the Natukhai, Shapsugh, and Abzakh tribes. ^[24] Circassian ethnographer Sultan Khan-Giray wrote in 1830:

The only religion of the Circassians is Islam, which adheres to the Sunni sect. Their warlike lifestyle causes them to disregard the rules of their religion. Despite this, many are ready to defend even the slightest insult to their faith at the risk of their lives. I have frequently encountered among them individuals so fanatical in religious matters that they surpass even the Turks and who meticulously follow the teachings of their clergy.

The clergy did not form a powerful class in Circassia. James Bell, who spoke with a Circassian about religion, wrote the following about the Circassians' faith: ^[37]

…When speaking about their current religious system, the Circassian mentioned the four authoritative books on which the religion is founded: the Bible, especially, as far as I could understand, part of the Old Testament; the Psalms of David; the Evangelist books (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John); and the Quran. However, he argued that Muhammad's revelation was more worthy of respect than that of Jesus, as it was received directly from God Himself.

In the mid-19th century, Circassians began writing in the Arabic alphabet and using Muslim names; Arabic words began to enter the language. Islam in Circassia challenged the established nobility and strengthened the lower classes' demand for equality. According to James Bell, the lower classes strove for equality in accordance with the rules prescribed by the Quran. ^[37] The aim of the rising Sharia movement during this period was to abolish nobility and slavery and to unite all social segments against Russian occupation. The movement was led by clergy and Circassian leaders; later, three representatives of Imam Shamil also tried to achieve this goal. ^[53]

By 1837, those who defected to the Russian side were declared traitors in Friday sermons. ^[5] In 1840, the non-Muslim Circassian minority also offered mass Shahada under the rule of Naib Muhammad Amin. ^[54] During the same period, Seferbiy Zaneqo declared in a letter to the Russian Tsar that the Circassians "from youngest to oldest had become Muslims." ^[5]

In 1841, a large meeting was held on the Pshekh River; these meetings were held regularly to decide on matters concerning the country. At the 1841 meeting, a contract, known as the "defter," was adopted with the approval of all Circassian leaders without exception. The first article of the contract read: ^[55]

Our first duty is the strict implementation of the Sharia. Any teachings contrary to it must be abandoned and rejected, and all crimes must be judged solely according to the Quran.

With the assumption of power in Circassia by Imam Shamil's viceroy, Muhammad Amin Asiyalav, the integration of Islam among the Circassians accelerated, and the implementation of Sharia law began. Although many Circassians were happy to be freed from what they considered an oppressive government after Muhammad Amin's surrender to the Russians, his reign can be said to have been extremely influential in the establishment of Islam among the Circassians. ^[56]

By the end of the war, the process of Islamization had become so complete that the Circassians who managed to reach the Ottoman Empire during the Circassian genocide chanted takbir in gratitude for the end of their journey. ^[56]

Contemporary era

Religion in Adygea as of 2012 (Sreda Arena Atlas) [57] [58]
Russian Orthodoxy			35.4%
Other Orthodox			1.4%
Other Christians			3.8%
Islam			12.6%
Spiritual but not religious			29.8%
Atheism and irreligion			9.2%
Other and undeclared			7.8%

Adygea

According to a 2012 survey which interviewed 56,900 people, ^[57] 35.4% of the population of Adygea adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 12.6% to Islam, 3% are unaffiliated Christians and 1% are Orthodox Christian believers who don't belong to church or are members of other Orthodox churches. In addition, 30% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 9% is atheist, and 8.6% follows other religions or did not answer to the question. ^[57]

Kabardino-Balkaria

Religion in Kabardino-Balkaria as of 2012 (Sreda Arena Atlas) [57] [58]
Islam			70.8%
Russian Orthodoxy			11.6%
Other Christians			4%
Circassian paganism			1.8%
Spiritual but not religious			5.6%
Atheism and irreligion			4.4%
Other and undeclared			1.8%

According to a 2012 survey which interviewed 56,900 people,^{[ citation needed ]} 70.8% of the population of Kabardino-Balkaria adheres to Islam, 11.6% to the Russian Orthodox Church, 1.8% to Circassian paganism and other indigenous faiths, 3.8% are unaffiliated generic Christians. In addition, 12% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 5.6% is Atheist or follows other religions including Jehovah's Witnesses.^{[ citation needed ]}

Krasnodar Krai

Religion in Krasnodar Krai as of 2012 (Sreda Arena Atlas) [57] [58]
Russian Orthodoxy			52.2%
Other Orthodox			0.9%
Old Believers			0.5%
Other Christians			3.5%
Islam			1.3%
Spiritual but not religious			22.5%
Atheism and irreligion			13.2%
Other and undeclared			5.9%

According to a 2012 survey^{[ citation needed ]} 52.2% of the population of Krasnodar Krai adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 3% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% are either Orthodox Christian believers who don't belong to church or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, and 1% are Muslims. In addition, 22% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 13% is atheist, and 7.8% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.^{[ citation needed ]}

Karachay-Cherkessia

Religion in Karachay-Cherkessia as of 2012 (Sreda Arena Atlas) [57] [59]
Russian Orthodoxy			13.2%
Other Christians			1.8%
Islam			64%
Circassian paganism			2%
Spiritual but not religious			10%
Atheism and irreligion			3%
Other and undeclared			6%

According to a 2012 survey which interviewed 56,900 people,^{[ citation needed ]} 64% of the population of Karachay-Cherkessia adheres to Islam, 13% to the Russian Orthodox Church, 2% to the Karachay and Circassian native faith, 2% are unaffiliated Christians, unchurched Orthodox Christian believers or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches. In addition, 10% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 3% are atheist, and 6% are other/undeclared. ^{[57] [58]}

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