Circassians in Turkey

Last updated
Circassians in Turkey
Тыркуем ис Адыгэхэр
Türkiye Çerkesleri
Cerkez surgununun anilmasi 1.jpg
Circassians marching to commemorate the Circassian genocide in Taksim Square, Istanbul
Total population
Estimated 2,000,000 [1] [2] [3] [4] –3,000,000 [5]
Regions with significant populations
in:
Languages
East Circassian
West Circassian
Turkish
Arabic (in Antakya and Reyhanlı)
Religion
Majority:
Sunni Islam
Minority:
Circassian native faith Khabzeism [6]  • Atheism-Agnosticism [7]
Related ethnic groups
Abazins, Abkhazians, Chechens
Part of a series on the
Circassians
Адыгэхэр
Circassian arrows.svg
List of notable Circassians
Circassian genocide
Circassian diaspora
Circassian tribes

Surviving

Destroyed or barely existing

Religion
Religion in Circassia
Languages and dialects
History
Show
Culture
The distribution of Circassians in Turkey CircassianinTu.png
The distribution of Circassians in Turkey
Circassians commemorate the massacre of their ancestors and exile of the Circassians from their homeland in Taksim Square, Istanbul Cerkez surgununun anilmasi 1.jpg
Circassians commemorate the massacre of their ancestors and exile of the Circassians from their homeland in Taksim Square, Istanbul
Ethem the Circassian, his Circassian hands and Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in front of the main building of the station, who were on their way to the Yozgat rebellion (June 1920) Cerkez Ethem, Cerkez savascilari ve Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, 06-1920.jpg
Ethem the Circassian, his Circassian hands and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in front of the main building of the station, who were on their way to the Yozgat rebellion (June 1920)

Circassians in Turkey [lower-alpha 1] refers to people born in or residing in Turkey that are of Circassian origin. The Circassians are one of the largest ethnic minorities in Turkey, with a population estimated to be two million, or according to the EU reports, three. [8]

Contents

Circassians are a Caucasian people, and although the Circassians in Turkey were assimilated to some degree, a portion of the diaspora still speaks their native Circassian languages as it is still spoken in many Circassian villages, and the group that preserved their language the best are the Kabardians. [9] With the rise of Circassian nationalism in the 21st century, Circassians in Turkey, especially the young, have started to study and learn their language. The Circassians in Turkey mostly identify as Muslim. The largest association of Circassians in Turkey, [10] KAFFED, was the founding member of the International Circassian Association (ICA), [11] until it left in 2022 due to "ICA acting as a Russian puppet organisation". [12]

The closely related ethnic groups Abazins (10,000 [13] ) and Abkhazians (39,000 [14] ) are also often counted among them. The term "Circassian" was formerly used in the Ottoman Empire in the late 1800s to refer to all North Caucasians.

History

Arrival in the Ottoman Empire

Circassians in the Ottoman Empire mainly kept to themselves and maintained their separate identity, even having their own courts, in which they would tolerate no outside influence, and various travelers noted that they never forgot their homeland, for which they continually yearned. [15]

After the Circassian genocide, Circassians who were exiled to Ottoman lands initially suffered heavy tolls. The Circassians were initially housed in schools and mosques or had to live in caves until their resettlement. The Ottoman authorities assigned lands for Circassian settlers close to regular water sources and grain fields. Numerous died in transit to their new homes from disease and poor conditions. [16]

In Romania, the Circassians were granted privileges by the Ottoman authorities because of their Muslim religion and would frequently enter in conflict with the Christian population of the region. They would give parts of their gains to the Ottoman authorities. Palace of the Pasha (now the Tulcea Art Museum) and the Azizyie Mosque of Tulcea were built with funds coming from Circassians. [17] [18]

In Bulgaria, one of the major spots of arrival for the Circassians, the lives of Circassians were not easy, as diseases spread. Many families completely disappeared within a few years. Around 80,000 Circassians lived in "death camps" on the outskirts of Varna, where they were deprived of food and subjected to diseases. As a result, both the Muslim and Christian population of Vidin volunteered to support the Circassian settlers by increasing grain production for them. The Circassians were seen as a "Muslim threat" and expelled from Bulgaria and other parts of the Balkans by Russian armies following the end of the Russo-Turkish war. They were not allowed to return, [19] [20] so the Ottoman authorities settled them in new other lands such as in modern Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Syria and Turkey.

In Jordan, the Bedouin Arabs viewed the Circassians very negatively. The Circassians refused to pay the khuwwa ("protection" fees), and the Bedouin declared that it was halal (allowed) to murder Circassians on sight. The mutual hostility between the Circassians and their nomadic and settled Arab neighbors led to many clashes. Despite the superiority of Bedouin arms and mobility, the Circassians maintained their positions and population. [21] Later, Circassians in Jordan marked the founding of modern Amman. [22]

Traditional Circassian dishes Circassian Cuisine P1150712.JPG
Traditional Circassian dishes

In Palestine, the Circassian exiles established the towns of al-Rihaniyya and Kafr Kama. [23] [24] The Bedouin Arabs viewed them as "squatters". Circassian culture occasionally clashed with Arab culture, with local Arabs looking with horror upon the equality of men and women in Circassian culture. [25] In various areas of the wider Levant region armed conflict broke out between Circassians and other local groups, especially Bedouin and Druze, with little or no Ottoman intervention; some of these feuds continued as late as the mid-20th century. [26]

In Syria, just like in Jordan and Palestine, clashes occurred between the Circassian exiles and the Bedouin. They were, however, less fierce compared to the other regions and slowly cooled down. Also, The Circassians which lived in the Ottoman Empire spoke a Tartar dialect like language, which they write with Arabic characters. [27]

Ottoman Circassian renaissance

Circassians are regarded by historians to play a key role in the history of Turkey. Circassians took active role in the Ottoman state in high positions from their arrival until the collapse of the empire. A large portion of influential entities, such as the Ottoman Special Organization, Hamidiye regiments, and the Committee of Union of Progress were made up by Circassians. Key figures include Eşref Kuşçubaşı and Mehmed Reşid. Circassians in the Ottoman lands embraced their Caucasian identity, while also maintaining a primary Ottoman-Muslim identity. After the 1908 Revolution in the Ottoman Empire, Circassian nationalist activities started. Organizations such as the Çerkes İttihat ve Teavün Cemiyeti (Circassian Union and Mutual Aid Society) and Çerkes Kadınları Teavün Cemiyeti (Circassian Women's Mutual Aid Society) published journals in the Circassian language and opened Circassian-only schools. Some were less cultural and more political, such as the Şimalî Kafkas Cemiyeti (North Caucasian Society) and the Kafkas İstiklâl Komitesi (Committee for the Liberation of Caucasus), both of which aimed for the independence of Circassia and were supported by the CUP. [28] [29]

Assimilation of Turkey's Circassians

Turkey has the largest Circassian population in the world, around half of all Circassians live in Turkey, mainly in the provinces of Samsun and Ordu (in Northern Turkey), Kahramanmaraş (in Southern Turkey), Kayseri (in Central Turkey), Bandırma, and Düzce (in Northwest Turkey), along the shores of the Black Sea; the region near the city of Ankara. All citizens of Turkey are considered Turks by the government, but it is estimated that approximately two million ethnic Circassians live in Turkey. The "Circassians" in question do not always speak the languages of their ancestors, and in some cases some of them may describe themselves as "only Turkish". The reason for this loss of identity is mostly due to natural assimilation, but also due to Turkey's government assimilation policies [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] and marriages with non–Circassians.

Especially after the 1940s, Circassians were restricted by policies such as the prohibition of Circassian language, [30] [32] [35] [36] [37] [38] Turkification of village names, and the ban on Circassian surnames. [39] [40] [33] Despite these policies, the Circassians remained loyal to the Turkish state.

In December 2021, Deutsche Welle's Turkish language documentary "The story of the Circassians from the Caucasus to Turkey" led to substantial discussions regarding the state of Circassian assimilation in Turkey. [41] [42] This gave rise to heavy xenophobia, racism and hate speech in Turkish media questioning loyalty of Circassians to the Turkish state and accusing Circassian NGOs of playing in foreign hands. Turkish ultranationalists were seen posting genocidal and racist quotes of Nihal Atsız. [41]

According to Fahri Huvaj, a prominent Circassian nationalist, the Circassian population has gone through assimilation in the world and now approximately only one fifth of Circassians can speak their language and that the Circassian language and culture is about to disappear from Turkey. UNESCO reports state that Adyghe and Abkhazian are among the "severely endangered" languages in Turkey . [41]

Most Circassian organizations, including KAFFED, the biggest one, confirmed Deutsche Welle's claims while still declaring loyalty to the state and calling for friendship between Circassians and Turks. However, some smaller local organizations like Çerkes Forumu denied the claims. Çerkes Forumu's statement read: "We are Circassians. There are no traitors among us. You can not turn us into traitors. Stop lying." [43]

" [44] [45] [46]

Demographics

A Turkish boy of Circassian origin wearing the North Caucasian traditional dress Chokha Turkish of Circassian origin with traditional dress Chokha.jpg
A Turkish boy of Circassian origin wearing the North Caucasian traditional dress Chokha

In the census of 1965, those who spoke Circassian as first language were proportionally most numerous in Kayseri (3.2%), Tokat (1.2%) and Kahramanmaraş (1.0%).

Notable people

(* = Circassian descent only on paternal side)

(** = Circassian descent only on maternal side)

Politicians

Presidents and prime ministers of Turkey

Sultans of the Ottoman Empire with Circassian mothers

Grand viziers of the Ottoman Empire

Military officers

Cultural figures

Historians and writers

Film, TV, and stage

Musicians and painters

Sports people

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Kabardian and Adyghe: Тыркуем ис Адыгэхэр, romanized: Tyrkuiem is Adygekher; Turkish: Türkiye Çerkesleri

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Darende</span> District and municipality in Malatya, Turkey

Darende is a municipality and district of Malatya Province, Turkey. Its area is 1,482 km2, and its population is 24,588 (2022). It lies 46 miles (74 km) to the northwest of Malatya, 87 miles (140 km) south of Sivas, 110 miles (180 km) east of Kayseri.

Damat Ibrahim Pasha was an Ottoman military commander and statesman who held the office of grand vizier three times (the first time from 4 April to 27 October 1596; the second time from 5 December 1596 to 3 November 1597; and for the third and last time, from 6 January 1599 to 10 July 1601. He is known as the conqueror of Kanije.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Damat Ferid Pasha</span> Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (1919, 1920)

Damat Mehmed Adil Ferid Pasha, known simply as Damat Ferid Pasha, was an Ottoman liberal statesman, who held the office of Grand Vizier, the de facto prime minister of the Ottoman Empire, during two periods under the reign of the last Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI, the first time between 4 March 1919 and 2 October 1919 and the second time between 5 April 1920 and 21 October 1920. Officially, he was brought to the office a total of five times, since his cabinets were recurrently dismissed under various pressures and he had to present new ones. Because of his involvement in the Treaty of Sèvres, his collaboration with the occupying Allied powers, and his readiness to acknowledge atrocities against the Armenians, he was declared a traitor and subsequently a persona non grata in Turkey. He emigrated to Europe at the end of the Greco-Turkish War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salih Hulusi Pasha</span> Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (1920)

Salih Hulusi Pasha, known as Salih Hulusi Kezrak after the Turkish Surname Law of 1934, was one of the last Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire, under the reign of the last Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI, between 8 March 1920 and 2 April 1920. Since he had been unable to form a government, and as part of the chain of events following the occupation of Istanbul by the Allies, he was dismissed from office by the sultan under foreign pressure on 2 April. His dismissal was to be followed by the official closure of the Parliament itself on 5 April, thus putting an end to the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ali Rıza Pasha</span> Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1919 to 1920

Ali Rıza Pasha (1860–1932) was an Ottoman military officer and statesman, who was one of the last Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire, under the reign of the last Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI, between 14 October 1919 and 2 March 1920.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Çerkes Ethem</span> Turkish militia leader (1886–1948)

Çerkes Ethem, known in English as Ethem the Circassian, was a Circassian Ottoman guerilla leader, social bandit, efe and soldier. He initially gained fame for establishing the Kuva-yi Seyyare and putting down multiple large-scale rebellions and gaining key major victories against the Greek armies invading Anatolia during the Turkish War of Independence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saffet Pasha</span> Ottoman statesman, diplomat and reformer (1814–1883)

Mehmed Esad Saffet Pasha, also known as Saffet Pasha (1814–1883), was an Ottoman statesman, diplomat and reformer, who served as the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Abdul Hamid II. He was a representative of the Ottoman Empire, alongside Sadullah Pasha at the Congress of Berlin.

Çerkes Mehmed Ali Pasha was an Ottoman statesman who served as Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1624 to 1625.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gazi Hüseyin Pasha</span> Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (1656)

Gazi Hüseyin Pasha, also known as Deli Hüseyin Pasha or Sarı Hüseyin Pasha or Baltaoğlu Hüseyin Pasha, was an Ottoman military officer and statesman. He was governor of Egypt (1635–1637), Kapudan Pasha in the 1630s, and briefly Grand Vizier in 1656.

Hadım Mehmed Pasha was a Georgian Ottoman statesman. He was Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire between 21 September 1622 and 5 February 1623. He also served as the Ottoman governor of Egypt from 1604 to 1605.

Tayyar Mehmed Pasha was an Albanian Ottoman grand vizier. His epithet Tayyar means "flying", referring to his speed in military operations.

Abaza Siyavuş Pasha was a short term grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire who held the post during one of the most chaotic periods of the empire.

Boynuyaralı Mehmed Pasha, also known as Boynueğri Mehmed Pasha, was an Ottoman statesman. He was grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 26 April 1656 to 15 September 1656.

Bozoklu Mustafa Pasha was an Ottoman statesman who served as grand vizier from 1693 to 1694. His epithet Bozoklu means "from Bozok".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Safranbolulu Izzet Mehmet Pasha</span> Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1794 to 1798

Safranbolulu Izzet Mehmet Pasha was a grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire and served from 1794 to 1798.

Divitdar Mehmed Emin Pasha was an Ottoman statesman who served as grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1750 to 1752. After this, he was exiled to Rethymno on Crete for three years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Izzet Mehmed Pasha</span> Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (1774–1775, 1781–1782)

Izzet Mehmed Pasha was an Ottoman statesman who served as the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire twice, first from 1774 to 1775, and second from 1781 to 1782.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kuva-yi Seyyare</span> Force of Circassian volunteers in Anatolia

Kuvâ-yi Seyyâre, also known as the Green Army Society or the People's Branch was a force of Circassian and Abkhazian volunteers led by Çerkes Ethem against the Allied invasion forces during the Turkish War of Independence. The group saw themselves as a force to fight against "those who caused disturbance to the greater good of Anatolia". The forces put down several rebellions and played a big role in significantly slowing down the Greek army during the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922). In time, as Ethem's Islamic Socialist views clashed with the Turkism-nationalism of Mustafa Kemal's Turkish National movement, he eventually cut ties with them, and was declared a traitor due to clashes with İsmet İnönü.

References

  1. ↑ Circassia, Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, archived from the original on 2010-11-29.
  2. ↑ Ülkü Bilgin: Azınlık hakları ve Türkiye. Kitap Yayınevi, Istanbul 2007; p. 85. ISBN   975-6051-80-9 (Turkish Language)
  3. ↑ Richmond, Walter (2013). The Circassian Genocide. Rutgers University Press. p. 130. ISBN   978-0813560694.
  4. ↑ Danver, Steven L. (2015). Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. p. 528. ISBN   978-1317464006.
  5. ↑ Zhemukhov, Sufian (2008). "Circassian World Responses to the New Challenges" (PDF). PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo No. 54: 2. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  6. ↑ 2012 Survey Maps Archived 2017-03-20 at the Wayback Machine . "Ogonek". No 34 (5243), 27 August 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  7. ↑ Svetlana Lyagusheva (2005). "Islam and the Traditional Moral Code of Adyghes". Iran and the Caucasus. 9 (1): 29–35. doi:10.1163/1573384054068123. JSTOR   4030903 – via Brill.
  8. ↑ Bernard Lewis (1961). "The Emergence of Modern Turkey". The Geographical Journal. 127 (4): 94. Bibcode:1961GeogJ.127..509B. doi:10.2307/1792817. JSTOR   1792817.
  9. ↑ Papşu, Murat (2003). Çerkes dillerine genel bir bakış Kafkasya ve Türkiye Archived 10 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine . Nart Dergisi, Mart-Nisan 2003, Sayı:35
  10. ↑ Адыгэхэм я щыгъуэ-щIэж махуэм къызэрагъэпэща пэкIур Тыркум гулъытэншэу къыщагъэнакъым Archived 2013-04-17 at archive.today . 2012-06-09 (Çerkesçe)
  11. ↑ "Kafkas Dernekleri Federasyonu İlkeleri". Archived from the original on 15 March 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
  12. ↑ "Ülkü Menşure Solak - DÇB'nin hayaleti". dikgazete.com (in Turkish). Retrieved 2022-10-25.
  13. ↑ "Ethnologue: Abasinen". Ethnologue. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
  14. ↑ "Ethnologue: Abchasen". Ethnologue. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
  15. ↑ Walter Richmond. Circassian genocide. p. 118.
  16. ↑ Rogan 1999, p. 73.
  17. ↑ Tița, Diana (16 September 2018). "Povestea dramatică a cerchezilor din Dobrogea". Historia (in Romanian).
  18. ↑ Parlog, Nicu (2 December 2012). "Cerchezii: misterioasa națiune pe ale cărei pământuri se desfășoară Olimpiada de la Soci". Descoperă.ro (in Romanian).
  19. ↑ Hacısalihoğlu, Mehmet. Kafkasya'da Rus Kolonizasyonu, Savaş ve Sürgün (PDF). Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi.
  20. ↑ BOA, HR. SYS. 1219/5, lef 28, p. 4
  21. ↑ Rogan 1999, pp. 74–76.
  22. ↑ Hamed-Troyansky 2017, pp. 608–10.
  23. ↑ Circassians (in Rehaniya and Kfar Kama)
  24. ↑ "Circassians Are Israel's Other Muslims". 20 August 2012.
  25. ↑ Walter Richmond. The Circassian Genocide. pp. 113–114.
  26. ↑ Walter Richmond. Circassian genocide. pp. 113–114, 117–118.
  27. ↑ "Voyage Militaire: Dans L'Empire Othoman".
  28. ↑ Besleney, Zeynel Abidin: The Circassian Diaspora in Turkey. Political History, New York 2014, pp. 58-60.
  29. ↑ Üre, Pınar. Circassian nationalism.
  30. 1 2 Ayhan Aktar, "Cumhuriyet'in Đlk Yıllarında Uygulanan 'Türklestirme' Politikaları," in Varlık Vergisi ve 'Türklestirme' Politikaları,2nd ed. (Istanbul: Iletisim, 2000), 101.
  31. ↑ Davison, Roderic H. (2013). Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West. University of Texas Press. p. 3. ISBN   978-0292758940. Archived from the original on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
  32. 1 2 Soner, Çağaptay (2006). Otuzlarda Türk Milliyetçiliğinde Irk, Dil ve Etnisite (in Turkish). Istanbul. pp. 25–26.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  33. 1 2 İnce, Başak (26 April 2012). Citizenship and identity in Turkey: from Atatürk's republic to the present day. Londra: I.B. Tauris. ISBN   978-1-78076-026-1.
  34. ↑ Aslan, Senem (17 May 2007). ""Citizen, Speak Turkish!": A Nation in the Making". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 13 (2): 245–272. doi:10.1080/13537110701293500. S2CID   144367148.
  35. ↑ Kieser, Hans-Lukas, ed. (2006). Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Londra [u.a.]: Tauris. p. 45. ISBN   9781845111410. Archived from the original on 13 October 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
  36. ↑ Ertürk, Nergis (19 October 2011). Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780199746682.
  37. ↑ Sofos, Umut Özkırımlı & Spyros A. (2008). Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 167. ISBN   9780231700528.
  38. ↑ Aslan, Senem (April 2007). ""Citizen, Speak Turkish!": A Nation in the Making". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. Vol. 13, no. 2. Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 245–272.
  39. ↑ Toktas, Sule (2005). "Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey's Jewish Minority". Journal of Historical Sociology. 18 (4): 400. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6443.2005.00262.x. S2CID   59138386. Archived from the original on 3 May 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
  40. ↑ Suny, Ronald Grigor; Goçek, Fatma Müge; Naimark, Norman M., eds. (23 February 2011). A question of genocide : Armenians and Turks at the end of the Ottoman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-539374-3.
  41. 1 2 3 Tastekin, Fehim (December 7, 2021). "Kürt sorunundan sonra Çerkes sorunu mu?". al-monitor.com (in Turkish). Archived from the original on Jan 10, 2022. Retrieved 2022-01-10.
  42. ↑ Kafkasya'dan Türkiye'ye Çerkeslerin hikayesi I Dünyada en fazla Çerkes Türkiye'de yaşıyor- DW Türkçe , retrieved 2022-01-10
  43. ↑ "Çerkes Forumu'ndan Alman DW kanalına yanıt: Bizden hain çıkmaz!". aksam.com.tr (in Turkish). 30 November 2021. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
  44. ↑ Nevşin Mengü Soruyor | Konuklar: İlber Ortaylı ve Erinç Sağkan , retrieved 2022-01-11
  45. ↑ Ortaylı, İlber (5 December 2021). "Çerkeslerimiz". hurriyet.com.tr (in Turkish). Retrieved 2022-01-11.
  46. ↑ Ortaylı, İlber, İlber Ortaylı ile Çerkesler & Erinç Sağkan ne yapacak? (in Turkish), Deutsche Welle, retrieved 2022-01-11
  47. ↑ Gimson, Andrew (2012). Boris: The Rise of Boris Johnson (Revised & updated ed.). London: Simon & Schuster. p. 1957. ISBN   978-0-85720-738-8.
  48. ↑ "CEM ÖZDEMIR: "Die ersten Kopftücher sah ich in Schwaben"". Faz.net. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 2011. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
  49. ↑ Circassian Diaspor: Israeli Circassians, Turkish People of Circassian Descent, Mehmed VI, Nāzim Hikmet, Hadise, Mehmet Oz, Kāzim Karabekir. Books LLC. August 2011. ISBN   9781233081905.
  50. ↑ Türkiye Kurtuluş Savaşı'nda Çerkes göçmenleri at Google Books
  51. ↑ Berzeg, Sefer E. (1990). Türkiye Kurtuluş Savaşı'nda Çerkes göçmenleri (in Turkish). Nart Yayıncılık.
  52. ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/48025.stm BBC. Turkey Bans Islamists, January 1998
  53. ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/673161.stm BBC. Ex-Turkish PM sentenced, March 2000
  54. ↑ "Necmettin Erbakan Kimdir?". 27 February 2014. Archived from the original on 28 March 2020.
  55. ↑ "13 Aralık 2010 - Aksiyon dergisi röportajı: "Bir yanımız anne tarafından Çerkez"". Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  56. ↑ Kirton, John J. (15 April 2016). G20 Governance for a Globalized World. Routledge. p. 239. ISBN   978-1-317-13111-3.
  57. ↑ S. H. Longrigg, Four centuries of modern Iraq, Oxford 1925
  58. ↑ H. Laoust, Les Governeurs de Damas sous les Mamlouks et les premiers ottomans (1260-1744), Damasc 1952
  59. ↑ İsmail Hâmi Danişmend, Osmanlı Devlet Erkânı, Türkiye Yayınevi, Istanbul, 1971 (Turkish)
  60. ↑ Abdul Azim Islahi, "Economic ideas of a nineteenth century Tunisian statesman: Khayr al-Din al-Tunisi." Hamdard Islamicus (2012): 61-80 online.
  61. ↑ Emiroğlu, Kudret (2016). Kısa Osmanlı-Türkiye Tarihi: Padişahlık Kültürü ve Demokrasi Ülküsü (in Turkish). İletişim Yayınları. ISBN   978-975-05-2067-9.
  62. ↑ Nâzım Tektaş, Sadrazamlar: Osmanlı'da ikinci adam saltanatı, Çatı Kitapları, 2002.
  63. ↑ Urazov, Fatikh. Generalissimusy mira XVI-XX vekov [Istoricheskiye portrety]. p. 58. ISBN   5-295-01270-0. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2021-09-24.
  64. ↑ Çerkes Ethem [attributed] (2014). Hatıralarım (Çerkes trajedisinin 150. yılında)[My Memoirs] (in Turkish). Istanbul: Bizim Kitaplar. ISBN   9786055476465.
  65. ↑ "Çerkes Ethem Kendini Savunuyor: Vatan İçin İlk Ben Yola Çıktım" [Ethem the Circassian defends himself: I Took the Initiative for the Homeland]. Radikal (in Turkish). Istanbul. 9 November 2014.
  66. ↑ Salihoğlu, M. Latif (21 September 2015). "Çerkes Ethem'e Resmen İade-i İtibar" [Official Restoration of Honour for Ethem the Circassian]. Yeni Asya (in Turkish). Istanbul.
  67. ↑ "Yeni Genelkurmay Başkanı Hulusi Akar oldu (Hulusi Akar kimdir?)" [Who is our new Chief of the General Staff Hulusi Akar?]. Haber Türk (in Turkish). Istanbul. 16 July 2016. Retrieved 17 July 2016.
  68. ↑ Tansu, Samih Nafiz. "İttihat ve Terakki, Ya Devlet Başa, Ya Kuzgun Leşe" (in Turkish).
  69. ↑ Gingeras, Ryan (2009-02-26). Sorrowful Shores: Violence, Ethnicity, and the End of the Ottoman Empire 1912-1923. OUP Oxford. ISBN   978-0-19-956152-0.
  70. ↑ Biography on biyografi.net
  71. ↑ "Ali İhsan Varol kimdir? Kaç yaşındadır?". hurriyet.com.tr (in Turkish). 15 June 2018. Retrieved 2021-11-18.
  72. ↑ Sönmezışık, Büşra (2008-12-06). "Hanım Ağa Benim Kadınım". Yeni Şafak . Retrieved 2014-05-16.
  73. ↑ Interview
  74. ↑ "Kara Sevda, official web". Archived from the original on 2015-10-11.
  75. ↑ Burun ameliyatından önce çirkindim Hürriyet, Retrieved 17 January 2014
  76. ↑ "Winners". BestModeloftheWorld.com. Istanbul: Best Model of the World. 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
  77. ↑ "Muzip ve ağır abi" (in Turkish). Hürriyet. 19 February 2015. Archived from the original on 24 February 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
  78. ↑ "Çerkez mitolojisinden gelen" (in Turkish). Radikal. 13 April 2009. Archived from the original on 24 February 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
  79. ↑ "Günseli Başar (Günseli Başar Kimdir? - Günseli Başar Hakkında)" (in Turkish). Hoş Sohbet. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
  80. ↑ Süsoy, Yener (2001-10-21). "Bizim kuşak doğal güzeldi". Hürriyet (in Turkish). Retrieved 2010-05-16.
  81. ↑ Judah, Tara (2020-04-06). "Where to begin with Nuri Bilge Ceylan". British Film Institute. Archived from the original on 2019-01-23. Retrieved 2021-07-18.
  82. ↑ Evans, Hilary; Gjerde, Arild; Heijmans, Jeroen; Mallon, Bill; et al. "Circassians in Turkey". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on 2020-04-18.
  83. ↑ "Fuat Balkan Biography and Olympic Results". sports-reference.com. Archived from the original on 15 September 2009. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
  84. ↑ Evans, Hilary; Gjerde, Arild; Heijmans, Jeroen; Mallon, Bill; et al. "Circassians in Turkey". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
  85. ↑ Evans, Hilary; Gjerde, Arild; Heijmans, Jeroen; Mallon, Bill; et al. "Adil Candemir". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2012.

Works cited

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.