Cognitive linguistics

Last updated

Cognitive linguistics is an interdisciplinary branch of linguistics, combining knowledge and research from cognitive science, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology and linguistics. [1] Models and theoretical accounts of cognitive linguistics are considered as psychologically real, and research in cognitive linguistics aims to help understand cognition in general and is seen as a road into the human mind.

Contents

There has been scientific and terminological controversy around the label "cognitive linguistics"; there is no consensus on what specifically is meant with the term. [2] [3]

Background

The roots of cognitive linguistics are in Noam Chomsky's 1959 critical review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior . Chomsky's rejection of behavioural psychology and his subsequent anti-behaviourist activity helped bring about a shift of focus from empiricism to mentalism in psychology under the new concepts of cognitive psychology and cognitive science. [4]

Chomsky considered linguistics as a subfield of cognitive science in the 1970s but called his model transformational or generative grammar. Having been engaged with Chomsky in the linguistic wars, [5] George Lakoff united in the early 1980s with Ronald Langacker and other advocates of neo-Darwinian linguistics in a so-called "Lakoff–Langacker agreement". It is suggested that they picked the name "cognitive linguistics" for their new framework to undermine the reputation of generative grammar as a cognitive science. [6]

Consequently, there are three competing approaches that today consider themselves as true representatives of cognitive linguistics. One is the Lakoffian–Langackerian brand with capitalised initials (Cognitive Linguistics). The second is generative grammar, while the third approach is proposed by scholars whose work falls outside the scope of the other two. They argue that cognitive linguistics should not be taken as the name of a specific selective framework, but as a whole field of scientific research that is assessed by its evidential rather than theoretical value. [3]

Approaches

Generative Grammar

Generative grammar functions as a source of hypotheses about language computation in the mind and brain. It is argued to be the study of 'the cognitive neuroscience of language'. [7] Generative grammar studies behavioural instincts and the biological nature of cognitive-linguistic algorithms, providing a computational–representational theory of mind. [8]

This in practice means that sentence analysis by linguists is taken as a way to uncover cognitive structures. It is argued that a random genetic mutation in humans has caused syntactic structures to appear in the mind. Therefore, the fact that people have language does not rely on its communicative purposes. [9] [10]

For a famous example, it was argued by linguist Noam Chomsky that sentences of the type "Is the man who is hungry ordering dinner" are so rare that it is unlikely that children will have heard them. Since they can nonetheless produce them, it was further argued that the structure is not learned but acquired from an innate cognitive language component. Generative grammarians then took as their task to find out all about innate structures through introspection in order to form a picture of the hypothesised language faculty. [11] [12]

Generative grammar promotes a modular view of the mind, considering language as an autonomous mind module. Thus, language is separated from mathematical logic to the extent that inference cannot explain language acquisition. [13] The generative conception of human cognition is also influential in cognitive psychology and computer science. [14]

Cognitive Linguistics (linguistics framework)

One of the approaches to cognitive linguistics is called Cognitive Linguistics, with capital initials, but it is also often spelled cognitive linguistics with all lowercase letters. [15] This movement saw its beginning in early 1980s when George Lakoff's metaphor theory was united with Ronald Langacker's Cognitive Grammar, with subsequent models of Construction Grammar following from various authors. The union entails two different approaches to linguistic and cultural evolution: that of the conceptual metaphor, and the construction.

Cognitive Linguistics defines itself in opposition to generative grammar, arguing that language functions in the brain according to general cognitive principles. [16] Lakoff's and Langacker's ideas are applied across sciences. In addition to linguistics and translation theory, Cognitive Linguistics is influential in literary studies, [17] education, [18] sociology, [19] musicology, [20] computer science [21] and theology. [22]

Conceptual metaphor theory

According to American linguist George Lakoff, metaphors are not just figures of speech, but modes of thought. Lakoff hypothesises that principles of abstract reasoning may have evolved from visual thinking and mechanisms for representing spatial relations that are present in lower animals. [23] Conceptualisation is regarded as being based on the embodiment of knowledge, building on physical experience of vision and motion. For example, the 'metaphor' of emotion builds on downward motion while the metaphor of reason builds on upward motion, as in saying “The discussion fell to the emotional level, but I raised it back up to the rational plane." [24] It is argued that language does not form an independent cognitive function but fully relies on other cognitive skills which include perception, attention, motor skills, and visual and spatial processing. [16] Same is said of various other cognitive phenomena such as the sense of time:

"In our visual systems, we have detectors for motion and detectors for objects/locations. We do not have detectors for time (whatever that could mean). Thus, it makes good biological sense that time should be understood in terms of things and motion." —George Lakoff

In Cognitive Linguistics, thinking is argued to be mainly automatic and unconscious. [25] [26] [27] Cognitive linguists study the embodiment of knowledge by seeking expressions which relate to modal schemas. [28] For example, in the expression "It is quarter to eleven", the preposition to represents a modal schema which is manifested in language as a visual or sensorimotoric 'metaphor'.

Cognitive and construction grammar

Constructions, as the basic units of grammar, are conventionalised form–meaning pairings which are comparable to memes as units of linguistic evolution. [29] [30] [31] [32] These are considered multi-layered. For example, idioms are higher-level constructions which contain words as middle-level constructions, and these may contain morphemes as lower-level constructions. It is argued that humans do not only share the same body type, allowing a common ground for embodied representations; but constructions provide common ground for uniform expressions within a speech community. [33] Like biological organisms, constructions have life cycles which are studied by linguists. [29]

According to the cognitive and constructionist view, there is no grammar in the traditional sense of the word. What is commonly perceived as grammar is an inventory of constructions; a complex adaptive system; [34] or a population of constructions. [35] Constructions are studied in all fields of language research from language acquisition to corpus linguistics. [34]

Integrative cognitive linguistics

There is also a third approach to cognitive linguistics, which neither directly supports the modular (Generative Grammar) nor the anti-modular (Cognitive Linguistics) view of the mind. Proponents of the third view argue that, according to brain research, language processing is specialized although not autonomous from other types of information processing. Language is thought of as one of the human cognitive abilities, along with perception, attention, memory, motor skills, and visual and spatial processing, rather than being subordinate to them. Emphasis is laid on a cognitive semantics that studies the contextual–conceptual nature of meaning. [36]

Computational approaches

Cognitive perspective on natural language processing

Cognitive linguistics offers a scientific first principle direction for quantifying states-of-mind through natural language processing. [37] As mentioned earlier Cognitive Linguistics, approaches grammar with a nontraditional view. Traditionally grammar has been defined as a set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases and words in a natural language. From the perspective of Cognitive Linguistics, grammar is seen as the rules of arrangement of language which best serve communication of the experience of the human organism through its cognitive skills which include perception, attention, motor skills, and visual and spatial processing. [16] Such rules are derived from observing the conventionalized pairings of meaning to understand sub-context in the evolution of language patterns. [29] The cognitive approach to identifying sub-context by observing what comes before and after each linguistic construct provides a grounding of meaning in terms of sensorimotoric embodied experience. [26] When taken together, these two perspectives form the basis of defining approaches in computational linguistics with strategies to work through the symbol grounding problem which posits that, for a computer, a word is merely a symbol, which is a symbol for another symbol and so on in an unending chain without grounding in human experience. [38] The broad set of tools and methods of computational linguistics are available as natural language processing or NLP. Cognitive linguistics adds a new set of capabilities to NLP. These cognitive NLP methods enable software to analyze sub-context in terms of internal embodied experience. [26]

Methods

The goal of natural language processing (NLP) is to enable a computer to "understand" the contents of text and documents, including the contextual nuances of the language within them. The perspective of traditional Traditional Chomskyan Linguistics offers NLP three approaches or methods to identify and quantify the literal contents, the who, what, where and when in text – in linguistic terms, the semantic meaning or semantics of the text. The perspective of cognitive linguistics offers NLP a direction to identify and quantify the contextual nuances, the why and how in text – in linguistics terms, the implied pragmatic meaning or pragmatics of text.

The three NLP approaches to understanding literal semantics in text based on traditional linguistics are symbolic NLP, statistical NLP, and neural NLP. The first method, symbolic NLP (1950s – early 1990s) is based on first principles and rules of traditional linguistics. The second method, statistical NLP (1990s–2010s), builds upon the first method with a layer of human curated & machine-assisted corpora for multiple contexts. The third approach neural NLP (2010 onwards), builds upon the earlier methods by leveraging advances in deep neural network-style methods to automate tabulation of corpora & parse models for multiple contexts in shorter periods of time. [39] [40] All three methods are used to power NLP techniques like stemming and lemmatisation in order to obtain statistically relevant listing of the who, what, where & when in text through named-entity recognition and Topic model programs. The same methods have been applied with NLP techniques like a bag-of-words model to obtain statistical measures of emotional context through sentiment analysis programs. The accuracy of a sentiment analysis system is, in principle, how well it agrees with human judgments.[ citation needed ] Because evaluation of sentiment analysis is becoming more and more specialty based, each implementation needs a separate training model and specialized human verification raising Inter-rater reliability issues. However, the accuracy is considered generally acceptable for use in evaluating emotional context at a statistical or group level. [41] [42]

A developmental trajectory of NLP to understand contextual pragmatics in text involving emulating intelligent behavior and apparent comprehension of natural language is cognitive NLP. This method is a rules based approach which involves assigning meaning to a word, phrase, sentence or piece of text based on the information presented before and after the piece of text being analyzed.

Controversy

The specific meaning of cognitive linguistics, the proper address of the name, and the scientific status of the enterprise have been called into question. Criticism includes an overreliance on introspective data, a lack of experimental testing of hypotheses and little integration of findings from other fields of cognitive science. [43] Some researchers go as far as to consider calling the field 'cognitive' at all a misnomer. [6]

"It would seem to me that [cognitive linguistics] is the sort of linguistics that uses findings from cognitive psychology and neurobiology and the like to explore how the human brain produces and interprets language. In other words, cognitive linguistics is a cognitive science, whereas Cognitive Linguistics is not. Most of generative linguistics, to my mind, is not truly cognitive either." [2]

— Bert Peeters

There has been criticism regarding the brain-related claims of both Chomsky's generative grammar, and Lakoff's Cognitive Linguistics. These are said to advocate too extreme views on the axis of modular versus general processing. The empirical evidence points to language being partially specialized and interacting with other systems. [3] However, to counter behaviorism, Chomsky postulated that language acquisition occurs inside an autonomous module, which he calls the language faculty, thus suggesting a very high degree of specialization of language in the brain. To offer an alternative to his view, Lakoff, in turn, postulated the opposite by claiming that language acquisition is not specialized at all because language does not constitute a cognitive capacity of its own but occurs in the sensory domains such as vision and kinesthesis. According to the critical view, these ideas were not motivated by brain research but by a struggle for power in linguistics. Members of such frameworks are also said to have used other researchers' findings to present them as their own work. [3] While this criticism is accepted for most part, it is claimed that some of the research has nonetheless produced useful insights. [44]

See also

Related Research Articles

Evolutionary linguistics or Darwinian linguistics is a sociobiological approach to the study of language. Evolutionary linguists consider linguistics as a subfield of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology. The approach is also closely linked with evolutionary anthropology, cognitive linguistics and biolinguistics. Studying languages as the products of nature, it is interested in the biological origin and development of language. Evolutionary linguistics is contrasted with humanistic approaches, especially structural linguistics.

The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to linguistics:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Universal grammar</span> Theory of the biological component of the language faculty

Universal grammar (UG), in modern linguistics, is the theory of the innate biological component of the language faculty, usually credited to Noam Chomsky. The basic postulate of UG is that there are innate constraints on what the grammar of a possible human language could be. When linguistic stimuli are received in the course of language acquisition, children then adopt specific syntactic rules that conform to UG. The advocates of this theory emphasize and partially rely on the poverty of the stimulus (POS) argument and the existence of some universal properties of natural human languages. However, the latter has not been firmly established, as some linguists have argued languages are so diverse that such universality is rare, and the theory of universal grammar remains controversial among linguists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">George Lakoff</span> American linguist (born 1941)

George Philip Lakoff is an American cognitive linguist and philosopher, best known for his thesis that people's lives are significantly influenced by the conceptual metaphors they use to explain complex phenomena.

In linguistics, transformational grammar (TG) or transformational-generative grammar (TGG) is part of the theory of generative grammar, especially of natural languages. It considers grammar to be a system of rules that generate exactly those combinations of words that form grammatical sentences in a given language and involves the use of defined operations to produce new sentences from existing ones.

In cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor, or cognitive metaphor, refers to the understanding of one idea, or conceptual domain, in terms of another. An example of this is the understanding of quantity in terms of directionality or the understanding of time in terms of money.

Cognitive science is the scientific study either of mind or of intelligence . Practically every formal introduction to cognitive science stresses that it is a highly interdisciplinary research area in which psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy, computer science, anthropology, and biology are its principal specialized or applied branches. Therefore, we may distinguish cognitive studies of either human or animal brains, the mind and the brain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Generative grammar</span> Theory in linguistics

Generative grammar, or generativism, is a linguistic theory that regards linguistics as the study of a hypothesised innate grammatical structure. It is a biological or biologistic modification of earlier structuralist theories of linguistics, deriving from logical syntax and glossematics. Generative grammar considers grammar as a system of rules that generates exactly those combinations of words that form grammatical sentences in a given language. It is a system of explicit rules that may apply repeatedly to generate an indefinite number of sentences which can be as long as one wants them to be. The difference from structural and functional models is that the object is base-generated within the verb phrase in generative grammar. This purportedly cognitive structure is thought of as being a part of a universal grammar, a syntactic structure which is caused by a genetic mutation in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Image schema</span>

An image schema is a recurring structure within our cognitive processes which establishes patterns of understanding and reasoning. As an understudy to embodied cognition, image schemas are formed from our bodily interactions, from linguistic experience, and from historical context. The term is introduced in Mark Johnson's book The Body in the Mind; in case study 2 of George Lakoff's Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: and further explained by Todd Oakley in The Oxford handbook of cognitive linguistics; by Rudolf Arnheim in Visual Thinking; by the collection From Perception to Meaning: Image Schemas in Cognitive Linguistics edited by Beate Hampe and Joseph E. Grady.

Construction grammar is a family of theories within the field of cognitive linguistics which posit that constructions, or learned pairings of linguistic patterns with meanings, are the fundamental building blocks of human language. Constructions include words, morphemes, fixed expressions and idioms, and abstract grammatical rules such as the passive voice or the ditransitive. Any linguistic pattern is considered to be a construction as long as some aspect of its form or its meaning cannot be predicted from its component parts, or from other constructions that are recognized to exist. In construction grammar, every utterance is understood to be a combination of multiple different constructions, which together specify its precise meaning and form.

<i>Syntactic Structures</i> Book by Noam Chomsky

Syntactic Structures is an important work in linguistics by American linguist Noam Chomsky, originally published in 1957. A short monograph of about a hundred pages, it is recognized as one of the most significant and influential linguistic studies of the 20th century. It contains the now-famous sentence "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously", which Chomsky offered as an example of a grammatically correct sentence that has no discernible meaning, thus arguing for the independence of syntax from semantics.

The cognitive revolution was an intellectual movement that began in the 1950s as an interdisciplinary study of the mind and its processes, from which emerged a new field known as cognitive science. The preexisting relevant fields were psychology, linguistics, computer science, anthropology, neuroscience, and philosophy. The approaches used were developed within the then-nascent fields of artificial intelligence, computer science, and neuroscience. In the 1960s, the Harvard Center for Cognitive Studies and the Center for Human Information Processing at the University of California, San Diego were influential in developing the academic study of cognitive science. By the early 1970s, the cognitive movement had surpassed behaviorism as a psychological paradigm. Furthermore, by the early 1980s the cognitive approach had become the dominant line of research inquiry across most branches in the field of psychology.

In linguistics, linguistic competence is the system of unconscious knowledge that one knows when they know a language. It is distinguished from linguistic performance, which includes all other factors that allow one to use one's language in practice.

Generative semantics was a research program in theoretical linguistics which held that syntactic structures are computed on the basis of meanings rather than the other way around. Generative semantics developed out of transformational generative grammar in the mid-1960s, but stood in opposition to it. The period in which the two research programs coexisted was marked by intense and often personal clashes now known as the linguistics wars. Its proponents included Haj Ross, Paul Postal, James McCawley, and George Lakoff, who dubbed themselves "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse".

Cognitive grammar is a cognitive approach to language developed by Ronald Langacker, which hypothesizes that grammar, semantics, and lexicon exist on a continuum instead of as separate processes altogether. This approach to language was one of the first projects of cognitive linguistics. In this system, grammar is not a formal system operating independently of meaning. Rather, grammar is itself meaningful and inextricable from semantics.

The linguistics wars were a protracted academic dispute inside American theoretical linguistics that took place mostly in the 1960s and 1970s, stemming from an intellectual falling out between Noam Chomsky and some of his early colleagues and doctoral students. The debate began in 1967, when linguists Paul Postal, "Haj" Ross, George Lakoff, and James McCawley—self-dubbed the "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse" —proposed an approach to the relationship between syntax and semantics, which treated deep structures as meanings rather than syntactic objects. While Chomsky and other generative grammarians argued that the meaning of a sentence was derived from its syntax, the generative semanticists argued that syntax was derived from meaning.

<i>Aspects of the Theory of Syntax</i> 1965 book by Noam Chomsky

Aspects of the Theory of Syntax is a book on linguistics written by American linguist Noam Chomsky, first published in 1965. In Aspects, Chomsky presented a deeper, more extensive reformulation of transformational generative grammar (TGG), a new kind of syntactic theory that he had introduced in the 1950s with the publication of his first book, Syntactic Structures. Aspects is widely considered to be the foundational document and a proper book-length articulation of Chomskyan theoretical framework of linguistics. It presented Chomsky's epistemological assumptions with a view to establishing linguistic theory-making as a formal discipline comparable to physical sciences, i.e. a domain of inquiry well-defined in its nature and scope. From a philosophical perspective, it directed mainstream linguistic research away from behaviorism, constructivism, empiricism and structuralism and towards mentalism, nativism, rationalism and generativism, respectively, taking as its main object of study the abstract, inner workings of the human mind related to language acquisition and production.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Formalism (linguistics)</span> Concept in linguistics

In linguistics, the term formalism is used in a variety of meanings which relate to formal linguistics in different ways. In common usage, it is merely synonymous with a grammatical model or a syntactic model: a method for analyzing sentence structures. Such formalisms include different methodologies of generative grammar which are especially designed to produce grammatically correct strings of words; or the likes of Functional Discourse Grammar which builds on predicate logic.

Theory of language is a topic in philosophy of language and theoretical linguistics. It has the goal of answering the questions "What is language?"; "Why do languages have the properties they do?"; or "What is the origin of language?". In addition to these fundamental questions, the theory of language also seeks to understand how language is acquired and used by individuals and communities. This involves investigating the cognitive and neural processes involved in language processing and production, as well as the social and cultural factors that shape linguistic behavior.

The usage-based linguistics is a linguistics approach within a broader functional/cognitive framework, that emerged since the late 1980s, and that assumes a profound relation between linguistic structure and usage. It challenges the dominant focus, in 20th century linguistics, on considering language as an isolated system removed from its use in human interaction and human cognition. Rather, usage-based models posit that linguistic information is expressed via context-sensitive mental processing and mental representations, which have the cognitive ability to succinctly account for the complexity of actual language use at all levels. Broadly speaking, a usage-based model of language accounts for language acquisition and processing, synchronic and diachronic patterns, and both low-level and high-level structure in language, by looking at actual language use.

References

  1. ↑ Robinson, Peter (2008). Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. Routledge. pp. 3–8. ISBN   978-0-805-85352-0.
  2. 1 2 Peeters, Bert (1998). "Cognitive musings". Word. 49 (2): 225–237. doi:10.1080/00437956.1998.11673884.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Schwarz-Friesel, Monika (2012). "On the status of external evidence in the theories of cognitive linguistics". Language Sciences. 34 (6): 656–664. doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2012.04.007.
  4. ↑ Greenwood, John D (1999). "Understanding the 'cognitive revolution' in psychology". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 35 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6696(199924)35:1<1::AID-JHBS1>3.0.CO;2-4 . Retrieved 2020-02-22.
  5. ↑ Harris, Randy Allen (1995). The Linguistics Wars. Oxford: OUP. ISBN   978-0-19-983906-3.
  6. 1 2 Peeters, Bert (2001). "Does cognitive linguistics live up to its name?". In Dirven, René (ed.). Language and Ideology, Vol.1: Theoretical Cognitive Approaches. John Benjamins. pp. 83–106. ISBN   978-90-272-9954-3.
  7. ↑ Marantz, Alec (2005). "Generative linguistics within the cognitive neuroscience of language". The Linguistic Review. 22 (2–4): 492–445. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.718.940 . doi:10.1515/tlir.2005.22.2-4.429. S2CID   8727463.
  8. ↑ Boeckx, Cedric (2005). "Generative Grammar and modern cognitive science" (PDF). Journal of Cognitive Science. 6: 45–54. Retrieved 2020-06-01.[ permanent dead link ]
  9. ↑ Hauser, Mark D.; Yang, Charles; Berwick, Robert C.; Tattersall, Ian; Ryan, Michael J.; Watumull, Jeffrey; Chomsky, Noam; Lewontin, Richard C. (2014). "The mystery of language evolution". Frontiers in Psychology. 5: 401. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00401 . PMC   4019876 . PMID   24847300.
  10. ↑ Berwick, Robert C.; Chomsky, Noam (2015). Why Only Us: Language and Evolution. MIT Press. ISBN   978-0-262-03424-1.
  11. ↑ Pullum, Geoffrey; Scholz, Barbara (2002). "Empirical assessment of stimulus poverty arguments" (PDF). The Linguistic Review. 18 (1–2): 9–50. doi:10.1515/tlir.19.1-2.9. S2CID   143735248. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-02-03. Retrieved 2020-02-28.
  12. ↑ Prefors, Amy; Tenenbaum, Joshua; Regier, Terry (2006). "Poverty of the stimulus? A rational approach" (PDF). Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society. 28. ISSN   1069-7977. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-11-11. Retrieved 2020-02-28.
  13. ↑ Smith, Neil (2002). Chomsky: Ideas and Ideals (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN   0-521-47517-1.
  14. ↑ Sudkamp, Thomas A. (1997). Languages and machines: an Introduction to the Theory of Computer Science. Addison-Wesley Longman. p. 569. ISBN   978-0-201-82136-9 . Retrieved 2020-06-01.
  15. ↑ Croft, William; Cruse, Alan (2004). Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-511-80386-4.
  16. 1 2 3 Croft, William; Cruse, Alan (2004). Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-511-80386-4.
  17. ↑ Harrison, Chloe; Nuttall, Louise; Stockwell, Peter; Yuan, Wenjuan (2014). "Introduction". In Harrison, Chloe; Nuttall, Louise; Stockwell, Peter; Yuan, Wenjuan (eds.). Cognitive Grammar in Literature. John Benjamins. pp. 1–16. ISBN   978-90-272-7056-6.
  18. ↑ Corni, F; Fuchs, H U; Dumont, E (2019). "Conceptual metaphor in physics education: roots of analogy, visual metaphors, and a primary physics course for student teachers". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 1286 (GIREP-ICPE-EPEC 2017 Conference 3–7 July 2017): 012059. Bibcode:2019JPhCS1286a2059C. doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1286/1/012059 .
  19. ↑ Cerulo, Karen A. (2019). "Embodied cognition: sociologgy's role in bridging mind, brain, and body". In Brekhus, Wayne H.; Ignatow, Gabe (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Sociology. Oxford University Press. pp. 81–100. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190273385.013.5 . Retrieved 2020-05-31.
  20. ↑ Spitzer, Michael (2004). Metaphor and Musical Thought. University of Chicago Press Press. ISBN   0-226-769720.
  21. ↑ Mondal, Prakash (2009). "How language processing constrains (computational) natural language processing: a cognitive perspective" (PDF). 23rd Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation: 365–374. Retrieved 2020-05-31.
  22. ↑ Feyaerts, Kurt; Boeve, Lieven (2018). "Religious metaphors at the crossroads between apophatical theology and Cognitive Linguistics: an interdisciplinary study". In Chilton, Paul; Kopytowska, Monika (eds.). Religion, Language, and the Human Mind. Oxford University Press Press. ISBN   978-0-19-063664-7.
  23. ↑ Lakoff, George (1990). "Invariance hypothesis: is abstract reasoning based on image-schemas?". Cognitive Linguistics. 1 (1): 39–74. doi:10.1515/cogl.1990.1.1.39. S2CID   144380802.
  24. ↑ Lakoff, George; Johnson, Mark (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press. ISBN   978-0-226-46801-3.
  25. ↑ Lakoff, George; Johnson, Mark (1999). Philosophy in the flesh : the embodied mind and its challenge to Western thought. Basic Books. ISBN   0-465-05673-3.
  26. 1 2 3 Ibarretxe-Antuñano, Iraide (2002). "MIND-AS-BODY as a Cross-linguistic Conceptual Metaphor". Miscelánea. 25 (1): 93–119. Retrieved 2020-07-15.
  27. ↑ Gibbs, R. W.; Colston, H. (1995). "The cognitive psychological reality of image schemas and their transformations". Cognitive Linguistics. 6 (4): 347–378. doi:10.1515/cogl.1995.6.4.347. S2CID   144424435.
  28. ↑ Luodonpää-Manni, Milla; Penttilä, Esa; Viimaranta, Johanna (2017). "Introduction". In Luodonpää-Manni, Milla; Viimaranta, Johanna (eds.). Empirical Approaches to Cognitive Linguistics: Aalyzing Real-Life Data. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-1-4438-7325-3. Archived from the original on 2020-10-23. Retrieved 2020-06-30.
  29. 1 2 3 Dahl, Östen (2001). "Grammaticalization and the life cycles of constructions". RASK – Internationalt Tidsskrift for Sprog og Kommunikation. 14: 91–134.
  30. ↑ Kirby, Simon (2013). "Transitions: The Evolution of Linguistic Replicators". In Binder; Smith (eds.). The Language Phenomenon (PDF). The Frontiers Collection. Springer. pp. 121–138. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-36086-2_6. ISBN   978-3-642-36085-5 . Retrieved 2020-03-04.
  31. ↑ Zehentner, Eva (2019). Competition in Language Change: the Rise of the English Dative Alternation. De Gruyter Mouton. ISBN   978-3-11-063385-6.
  32. ↑ MacWhinney, Brian (2015). "Introduction – language emergence". In MacWhinney, Brian; O'Grady, William (eds.). Handbook of Language Emergence. Wiley. pp. 1–31. ISBN   978-1-118-34613-6.
  33. ↑ Clark, Eve (2015). "Common ground". In MacWhinney, Brian; O'Grady, William (eds.). Handbook of Language Emergence. Wiley. pp. 1–31. ISBN   978-1-118-34613-6.
  34. 1 2 Ellis, Nick C. (2011). "The emergence of language as a Complex Adaptive System". In Simpson, James (ed.). Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics. pp. 666–679. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.456.3740 . ISBN   978-0-203-83565-4.
  35. ↑ Arbib, Michael A. (2008). "Holophrasis and the protolanguage spectrum". In Arbib, Michael A.; Bickerton, Derek (eds.). The Emergence of Protolanguage. pp. 666–679. ISBN   978-90-272-8782-3.
  36. ↑ Schwarz-Friesel, Monika (2008). Einführung in die Kognitive Linguistik. Dritte, aktualisierte und erweiterte Auflage. Francke. ISBN   978-3-8252-1636-8.
  37. ↑ Kjell (2019). "Semantic measures: Using natural language processing to measure, differentiate, and describe psychological constructs". Psychological Methods. 24 (1): 92–115. doi:10.1037/met0000191. PMID   29963879. S2CID   49642731.
  38. ↑ Vogt, Paul. "Language evolution and robotics: issues on symbol grounding and language acquisition." Artificial cognition systems. IGI Global, 2007. 176–209.
  39. ↑ Goldberg, Yoav (2016). "A Primer on Neural Network Models for Natural Language Processing". Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research. 57: 345–420. arXiv: 1807.10854 . doi:10.1613/jair.4992. S2CID   8273530.
  40. ↑ Goodfellow, Ian; Bengio, Yoshua; Courville, Aaron (2016). Deep Learning. MIT Press.
  41. ↑ Karlgren, Jussi, Magnus Sahlgren, Fredrik Olsson, Fredrik Espinoza, and Ola Hamfors. "Usefulness of sentiment analysis." In European Conference on Information Retrieval, pp. 426-435. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012.
  42. ↑ Karlgren, Jussi. "Affect, appeal, and sentiment as factors influencing interaction with multimedia information." In Proceedings of Theseus/Image CLEF workshop on visual information retrieval evaluation, pp. 8-11. 2009.
  43. ↑ Dąbrowska, Ewa (2016). "Cognitive Linguistics' seven deadly sins" (PDF). Cognitive Linguistics. 27 (4): 479–491. doi:10.1515/cog-2016-0059.
  44. ↑ Gibbs, Raymond W. Jr. (2013). "The real complexities of psycholinguistic research on metaphor". Language Sciences. 40: 45–52. doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2013.03.001.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.