Cyclosa argenteoalba | |
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Scientific classification ![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Subphylum: | Chelicerata |
Class: | Arachnida |
Order: | Araneae |
Infraorder: | Araneomorphae |
Family: | Araneidae |
Genus: | Cyclosa |
Species: | C. argenteoalba |
Binomial name | |
Cyclosa argenteoalba Bösenberg & Strand, 1906 | |
Cyclosa argenteoalba, in the trashline orbweavers genus, is a species of orb weaver in the spider family Araneidae. It is found in East Asia in the countries of China, Japan, and Korea. C. argenteoalba are diurnal, which means they are active during the day. Spiders with less silver coloring are better at catching prey, since the silver is bright and warns their prey. They catch their prey by waiting in the hub of their web until their prey is close enough to catch. Parasitic larvae are often found attached to C. argenteoalba, and the larvae are able to manipulate the spider's behavior. Females are on average 2mm longer in size than males. During mating, female genital mutilation is common in order to increase the fitness of the male. On their webs, they often attach silk "decorations" that are thought to deter predators. Relocating to a different place to build a new web occurs frequently until they find a location with a significant amount of prey.
C. argenteoalba are characterized by black and silver coloring on their dorsal abdomen and a black cephalothorax. They are born with a completely silver dorsal abdomen and change color to include some black as they mature. The amount of black versus silver color varies between individuals, with the average being 60% black and 40% silver and the range being anywhere between 20% and 100% black. Females possess much more variation than males. The silver coloring reflects ultraviolet light, making them more easily visible if they have a greater percentage of silver. It is most likely due to the presence of guanine in their hypodermis. [1]
Female C. argenteoalba are larger than males. The average female length is 5.3mm, and the average male is 3.2mm. This results in a 1.6 ratio of female to male length. In orb-weaving spiders, it is common for there to be sexual dimorphism with the female being larger. [2] Adult spiders are usually 10mg in weight. [3]
Cyclosa octotuberculata is a close relative of the C. argenteoalba, and these two spider species are commonly found in Japan in similar habitats, consuming similar-sized prey. In addition to geographical location, these two spider species are both diurnal, construct vertical orb webs, and follow the same schedule of daily web building and re-building. [4]
C. argenteoalba are found in the Far East in the countries of China, Korea, Taiwan, Japan, and Russia. [5] These spiders can be found in farmland, mountainous regions, and suburban areas, but are usually found on the edge of bamboo and wood forests where there is adequate sunlight. [4]
These spiders prey on small flies, such as drosophila, which are fed to them in many of the research labs they are studied in. They also eat some small hymenopteran insects, which include bees, wasps, and ants, and hemipteran insects, such as aphids and leafhoppers. C. argenteoalba sit and wait for their prey in the hub of their webs. [1] They often build their webs in open places where they are more likely to catch more prey. [3]
Since C. argenteoalba stay still and wait for their prey, they are better at catching prey if they are not detected. Studies have shown that female spiders that have a higher percentage of silver coloring as opposed to black on their dorsal abdomen are less successful at catching prey. This is due to the high reflectiveness of the silver being more visible and therefore alerting their prey. However, the silver coloring's disadvantage during hunting has not been completely selected against and eliminated from the population. A suggested hypothesis for why it still exists is that it could help regulate temperature by cooling down spiders that are exposed to direct sunlight. The female coloring difference is most likely not a factor in mating, since male spiders have poor vision and instead rely on pheromones. [1]
C. argenteoalba are vertical orbweavers, which means their webs are spiral shaped and are oriented vertically to the ground. [6] On average, their webs are 20 cm in diameter. [7] They often build their webs in open locations where they are likely to trap a significant amount of flying prey. This allows for them to catch a large amount of insects and also makes them more visible to potential predators. [3] These spiders use more thread to build their webs when there is more available prey, and less thread when there are more predators. C. argenteoalba's web-building behavior consists of many pre-programmed features that are independent of each other. These features include frame threads, radial threads, sticky spirals and hub loops. This was shown through experiments with parasites attached to the spiders that manipulated their web-building. The web features that were used were determined by examining when the parasites were removed from the spiders. The spiders also make another kind of web to use only for molting, called "resting webs", which are not sticky and have many silk decorations. [6]
C. argenteoalba webs are temporary and may be constructed daily. They usually construct their webs during the day. [4] They frequently begin in the morning and stop in the evening. [8] At night, they eat the adhesive threads of their web. These spiders always face upwards in their webs, as opposed to other Cyclosa species that may face downwards or sideways. The different orientations of the webs and of the spiders are a means to enhance evasion from predators. [9]
C. argenteoalba often relocate and rebuild their webs if they determine that a location does not have a significant amount of prey. A unique characteristic of C. argenteoalba is its use of 'long-lasting memory' to enhance its foraging efficiency during web relocation. In other words, the rate of web relocation in response to low prey capture is lowered when the spider uses its past foraging experience (i.e. its 'long-lasting memory'). Therefore, mature spiders with a more extensive history of foraging will gain a greater benefit upon foraging and a lower cost upon web relocation. [10] They may also relocate due to higher incidences[ spelling? ] of conspecific interactions in prey abundant areas. But other non-prey related factors for web relocation include environmental factors such as changes in temperature. [8] It takes the spiders a few days to decide if their new location is suitable. C. argenteoalba are more likely to relocate if they have not been in a particular place for very long, as opposed to spiders that are already familiar with the site. The amount of thread spiders used on the second day at a particular place was significantly more than the thread used on the first day, indicating that spiders wait to invest more thread until they decide they are in a good location. [11] When C. argenteoalba abandons old webs, they leave all debris present with the web. Each web they construct has new debris. Their behavior contrasts from their close relative C. octotuberculata who brings previous debris to their new webs. [4]
These spiders often attach linear silk decorations, referred to as stabilimenta, above or below the web's hub (where the spider waits for their prey). These decorations can come in many forms, including zigzag bands, linear, cross shapes, disk shapes, or spiral shapes. They will often hang the remains of prey from their web as well. (6) When they relocate and build new webs, they do not transfer any old decorations or debris to its new web. Not all C. argenteoalba webs contain decorations. These decorations do not attract prey like they do in other species of spiders, but instead help protect them from their own predators. This was determined through experiments where the spiders produced longer silk decorations when there was an increased predation risk, but was not affected by the amount of available prey. Web decorations reflect UV light, which birds and insects that prey on C. argenteoalba are sensitive to. Their predators may not be able to distinguish the decorations from the spider itself and therefore be deceived about the size of the spider. [12]
C. argenteoalba usually produce two generations per year, and occasionally will produce three. Typically, they will reproduce in May, August, and sometimes October, and during these times their body mass is at its seasonal peak. After females have laid their eggs, their abdomens are noticeably smaller, which makes their reproduction easier to study. Females avoid laying eggs in their webs, instead opting to lay them in the surrounding area. [4] Spiderlings will emerge from their egg sacs after about a month. Overwintering occurs as they mature and then they begin building their webs in March. In comparison to other cyclosa species (C. octotuberculata and C. seduculata), C. argenteoalba have a rapid growth rate, a lower survival rate and a larger relative clutch size with smaller eggs. These characteristics lead to them having a larger investment in reproduction in order to counteract the lower survival rate of the species. C. argenteoalba also shows a more prominent reduction in clutch size the second time they lay eggs in a year compared to the first. [3]
The courtship ritual of C. argenteoalba begins with the male producing a mating thread, then jerking and poking this tread with its legs. If the female accepts, they copulate while hanging from this mating thread and often rotate around the vertical line. Females have two genital openings. Males have two pedipalps as well, and they usually use both in succession in order to fill up each of the female's genital openings. They then must repeat their courtship ritual in order to begin filling up the female's second opening. [5]
Male C. argenteoalba often mutilate female spiders' genitals during mating. They do this by detaching the female's scape, which is their genital appendage that the male must grab to position itself and is necessary for successful mating. Females do not seem to resist mutilation in any way. Male spiders exhibit mutilation behavior in order to control how often the females are able to mate and increase the probability that they will father her offspring, thereby increasing their own fitness. This method of increasing fitness is relatively low-cost to the male, as compared to other means such as guarding the female, blocking females' genital openings with their own appendages, or sexual cannibalism where the male is eaten by the female. C. argenteoalba do not often exhibit female genital mutilation until after males have filled both of the female's genital openings. Even males that had already mated with another female did not often exhibit mutilation behavior towards the second female that only had one palpal insertion. Experiments were also conducted where one of the male's pedipalps was removed, and mutilation was much more common after contralateral insertions than ipsilateral insertions. These results support the two-action hypothesis, which is that each insertion cuts the female's scape halfway on one side and usually requires an insertion on the right and left sides to fully remove the scape. [5]
Some common predators of C. argenteoalba include wasps, parasitic flies, birds, jumping spiders that feed on other spiders, and praying mantises. [12] C. argenteoalba's conspicuous silver coloring may be costly since they are more easily seen by their predators. As mentioned above, their web decorations are thought to deter predators by making them seem more intimidating. [12]
C. argenteoalba are often found with koinobiont parasitoid larvae attached to them. Koinobiont means they allow their host to continue being active during parasitism. One common example of parasitoid larvae often found on C. argenteoalba are polysphinctines such as Reclinervellus nielseni , which are a type of wasp. These parasites consume the spider hosts after the larvae have matured and then the parasites can complete metamorphosis. While the larvae are still attached, the spiders show behavior that seems to be manipulated by the larvae through their secretions. The spiders' webs were altered from the normal sticky spiral and instead constructed simplified "cocoon" webs with V-shaped radii, more hub loops, and silk decorations. Whether or not each specific web attribute was produced depended on when the parasite was removed from the spider, suggesting that each web feature is made independently. Even though the parasites' manipulation appeared quickly and was long-lasting, the spiders were eventually able to revert to their normal web-building some time after the larvae were removed. This manipulated behavior was more prominent and enduring the longer the parasites were left on the spiders. [6]
The complete mitochondrial genome of C. argenteoalba has been sequenced. It was found that the genome is majority A+T and includes 37 genes. The cloverleaf structure typically associated with transfer RNA is not successfully formed by thirteen of its transfer RNAs. The genome is 14,575 basepairs long. [13] Phylogenetic analysis showed C. argenteoalba is closely related to Hypsosings pygmaea and Areneus ventricosus. [14]
Nephila is a genus of araneomorph spiders noted for the impressive webs they weave. Nephila consists of numerous species found in warmer regions around the world, although some species formerly included in the genus have been moved to Trichonephila. They are commonly called golden silk orb-weavers, golden orb-weavers, giant wood spiders, or banana spiders.
A stabilimentum, also known as a web decoration, is a conspicuous silk structure included in the webs of some species of orb-web spider. Its function is a subject of debate.
Trichonephila clavipes, commonly known as the golden silk orb-weaver, golden silk spider, golden orb weaver spider or colloquially banana spider, is an orb-weaving spider species which inhabits forests and wooded areas ranging from the southern US to Argentina. It is indigenous to both continental North and South America. Known for the golden color of their silk, the large size of their females, and their distinctive red-brown and yellow coloring, T. clavipes construct large, asymmetrical circular webs attached to trees and low shrubs in woods to catch small- and medium-size flying prey, mostly insects. They are excellent web-builders, producing and utilizing seven different types of silk, and they subdue their prey by injecting them with venom, as opposed to related species which immobilize their prey by wrapping them in silk first. They are not known to be aggressive towards humans, only biting out of self-defense if touched, and their relatively harmless venom has a low toxicity, posing little health concern to healthy human adults. Due to their prevalence in forests, T. clavipes may be encountered by hikers.
Argiope keyserlingi is a species of orb-web spider found on the east coast of Australia, from Victoria to northern Queensland. It is very similar in appearance to a closely related north Queensland species, Argiope aetherea. A. keyserlingi is commonly found in large populations in suburban parks and gardens, particularly among the leaves of Lomandra longifolia. Like many species of orb-web spider, A. keyserlingi shows considerable sexual dimorphism, as the females are many times larger than the males. Mature females can be seen during the summer, and seeing multiple males on the web of one female is not uncommon.
Zygiella x-notata, sometimes known as the missing sector orb weaver or the silver-sided sector spider, is a spider species in the family Araneidae. They are solitary spiders, residing in daily spun orb webs. Z. x-notata is a member of the genus Zygiella, the orb-weaving spiders. The adult female is easily recognized by the characteristic leaf-like mark on her posterior opisthosoma, caudal to the yellow-brown cephalothorax.
Cyclosa, also called trashline orbweavers, is a genus of orb-weaver spiders first described by Anton Menge in 1866. Widely distributed worldwide, spiders of the genus Cyclosa build relatively small orb webs with a web decoration. The web decoration in Cyclosa spiders is often linear and includes prey remains and other debris, which probably serve to camouflage the spider. The name "Cyclosa" comes from Greek 'to move in a circle', referring to how it spins its web.
Nephila pilipes is a species of golden orb-web spider. It resides all over countries in East and Southeast Asia as well as Oceania. It is commonly found in primary and secondary forests and gardens. Females are large and grow to a body size of 30–50 mm, with males growing to 5–6 mm. It is the second largest of the orb-weaving spiders apart from the recently discovered Nephila komaci. The first, second, and fourth pairs of legs of juvenile females have dense hairy brushes, but these brushes disappear as the spider matures.
Argiope argentata, commonly known as the silver argiope or silver garden spider due to the silvery color of its cephalothorax, is a member of the orb-weaver spider family Araneidae. This species resides in arid and warm environments in North America, Central America, the Caribbean and widely across South America. In the United States, it is found at least in Southern California, Florida, Arizona, and Texas. A. argentata create stabilimenta and a unique zig-zag in its web design, and it utilizes its UV-reflecting silk to attract pollinating species to prey upon. Like other species of Argiope, its venom is not harmful to humans; however, it can be employed to immobilize its prey. A. argentata engages in sexual cannibalism either mid- or post-copulation. One aspect of particular interest regarding this species is its extinction patterns, which notably have minimal correlation with its population size but rather occur sporadically for the species.
Larinioides sclopetarius, commonly called bridge-spider or gray cross-spider, is a relatively large orb-weaver spider with Holarctic distribution. These spiders originated in Europe, have been observed as south as the Mediterranean Coast and as north as Finland, and have been introduced to North America. They are often found on bridges, especially near light and over water. The species tends to live on steel objects and is seldom seen on vegetation. Females reach a body length of 10–14 mm, and males 8–9 mm. Their orb webs can have diameters of up to 70 cm.
Gasteracantha fornicata is a species of spiny orb-weavers found in Queensland Australia. It is similar in shape to Austracantha minax which was originally described as Gasteracantha minax. It was described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775, the first Australian species of spider to be named and classified.
Cyrtophora citricola, also known as the tropical tent-web spider, is an orb-weaver spider in the family Araneidae. It is found in Asia, Africa, Australia, Costa Rica, Hispaniola, Colombia, and Southern Europe and in 2000, it was discovered in Florida. C. citricola differs from many of its close relatives due its ability to live in a wide variety of environments. In North America and South America, the spider has caused extensive damage to agricultural operations.
Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight limbs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude silk. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all orders of organisms. Spiders are found worldwide on every continent except Antarctica, and have become established in nearly every land habitat. As of November 2023, 51,673 spider species in 136 families have been recorded by taxonomists. However, there has been debate among scientists about how families should be classified, with over 20 different classifications proposed since 1900.
Argiope aemula, commonly known as the oval St Andrew's cross spider, is a species of spider in the family Araneidae which is native to southeast Asia, found from India and Sri Lanka to the Philippines, Indonesia, and Vanuatu. It is one of the giant, conspicuous "signature spider" species of the genus Argiope, observed in tropical and subtropical grasslands.
Reclinervellus nielseni is one of the spider-ectoparasitoids belonging to the Polysphincta genus-group and utilizes exclusively Cyclosa spiders as hosts. The species is distributed from Britain to Japan but is rather sparse. Host spider species is different in accordance with the region, that is Cyclosa conica in Europe whereas Cyclosa argenteoalba in Japan.
Tetragnatha montana, commonly known as the silver stretch spider, is a species of long-jawed orb weaver from the family Tetragnathidae that has a Palearctic distribution. It preys mostly on flies and mosquitoes. The name silver stretch spider refers to its shiny metallic colour and its habit of extending its legs into a stick like shape.
Argyrodes elevatus, commonly referred to as dew-drop spider, is part of the family Theridiidae that consists of more than 3,000 species. These spiders are most commonly found in subtropical and tropical regions in South and Central America, as well as southern regions of the United States. One of the key distinguishing characteristics of A. elevatus is its kleptoparasitic behavior through which it primarily procures food for survival. Typically 1 or 2 A. elevatus spiders preside in outer areas of webs built by other species of spiders, although it is possible for up to 45 spiders. There are two main mechanisms by which A. elevatus raid the hub of the host's web to steal insects preyed and wrapped by the host spider. A. elevatus follows an intricate course to the hub of the web to search for prey, using vibrational detection enhanced by laid out threads along the web to find and capture the insect. These spiders are highly efficient, with the theft lasting a maximum of 12 seconds and high success rates. This reliance on a host spider for food has led to adaptations in sleep schedules and alternate food sources to revolve around the host species activity. A. elevatus display a unique courtship routine in which male A. elevatus presents prey wrapped in silk as a nuptial gift to the female spider. The male spider approaches the female, carrying the nuptial gift on its chelicerae while communicating with a distinct courting vibration, followed by copulation. Approximately twenty-four hours after the A. elevatus courtship and copulation series of events, the female spider will lay one to two eggs on the outer regions of the host's web.
Cyclosa turbinata is a species of orb weaver belonging to the family of spiders known as Araneidae. It is found in a range from the United States to Panama, West Indies, Galapagos Islands, and has been introduced into Hawaii.
Tetragnatha versicolor is a species of long-jawed orb weaver in the spider family Tetragnathidae. It is found throughout North America, Canada, Central America, and Cuba, but are most common in the United States. T. versicolor is heavily concentrated in New England and the west coast in states like California and Washington. T. versicolor is considered a habitat generalist, and can thrive in many different environments. While they can be found in places like Grasslands, Wetlands, Forests, etc., they prefer dryer areas like normal trees and shrubs. Unlike other spiders in the genus Tetragnatha, T. versicolor will rarely reside near aquatic environments. T. versicolor will typically be colored dark yellow or pale orange and average around 5 mm for males and 6.5 mm for females in length, which is very small for a spider. They are much longer than they are wide, making them very distinct. In addition, T. versicolor can be distinguished from other spiders in Tetragnatha by the distinct separation of the anterior/posterior eyes and the appearance of their reproductive organs. As an orb weaver spider, T. versicolor creates a web to hunt for prey. It will wait at night for prey to stumble into its web and use vibrational signals throughout the web to sense trapped prey. In terms of mating behavior, T. versicolor lacks a distinct courting ritual and will mate with any others in the proximity. Mating behavior is heavily affected by female mating history. In terms of interactions with humans, the bite of T. versicolor is venomous, but not known to cause significant harm.
Leucauge mariana is a long-jawed orb weaver spider, native to Central America and South America. Its web building and sexual behavior have been studied extensively. Males perform several kinds of courtship behavior to induce females to copulate and to use their sperm.
Larinia jeskovi is a species of the family of orb weaver spiders and a part of the genus Larinia. It is distributed throughout the Americas, Africa, Australia, Europe, and Asia and commonly found in wet climes such as marshes, bogs, and rainforests. Larinia jeskovi have yellow bodies with stripes and range from 5.13 to 8.70 millimeters in body length. They build their webs on plants with a small height above small bodies of waters or wetlands. After sunset and before sunrise are the typical times they hunt and build their web. Males usually occupy a female's web instead of making their own. The mating behavior is noteworthy as male spiders often mutilate external female genitalia to reduce sperm competition while female spiders resort to sexual cannibalism to counter such mechanisms. The males also follow an elaborate courtship ritual to attract the female. The bite of Larinia jeskovi is not known to be of harm to humans.