| Dactylopius opuntiae | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Dactylopius coccus, a closely related species to D. opuntiae | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hemiptera |
| Suborder: | Sternorrhyncha |
| Family: | Dactylopiidae |
| Genus: | Dactylopius |
| Species: | D. opuntiae |
| Binomial name | |
| Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell, 1929) | |
Dactylopius opuntiae, also known as the prickly pear cochineal, is a species of scale insect in the family Dactylopiidae.
Dactylopius opuntiae was first identified by Cockerell as Coccus cacti opuntiae after he collected it from cactus plants in Mexico in 1896. Later, it was considered a synonym of Dactylopius tomentosus , and workers often referred to the same species by different names or used the same name for different species. De Lotto notes that it became common practice to call Dactylopiusopuntiae a distinct wild cochineal insect from Dactylopius tomentosus, even though their identity and status were never fully resolved. Eventually, in 1929, the species was classified as Dactylopius opuntiae by Cockerell. [1]
All species of the family Dactylopiidae have females with an oval-shaped body that is purple-red in color and covered in a white, cotton-like wax. This wax protects the body of the cochineal from heat, cold, and predators. Adult females are sessile and form colonies of up to a few thousand individuals of mixed age, creating conspicuous clusters of white wax all over the plant. Adult females of Dactylopius opuntiae produce red glucosidal hydroxyanthrapurin (carminic acid), which occurs naturally within their body. Morphologically, all Dactylopius species have truncate dorsal setae and clusters of quinquelocular pores associated with tubular ducts on the body of females, and no microducts and cellular anal rings bearing setae. Large, truncate, and rounded setae longer than the width at the base and numerous narrow ventral pores on the last three body segments distinguish Dactylopius opuntiae from all its congeners. [1]
Dactylopius opuntiae follows a life cycle similar to that of other species in the genus, consisting of two nymphal instars before adult females and two nymphal instars, prepupa, and pupa before adult males. Its biology has been studied in various regions, both in the laboratory and the open field, with female and male cycles lasting 77 and 43 days, respectively, in lab observations, and an offspring sex ratio of 3.7:1 (females:males) in greenhouse conditions. Field studies have shown that the female life cycle lasts 40–180 days, while males usually complete their cycle in 35–52 days. The optimal temperature for development is 30 °C, but males cannot emerge from the cocoon or adult females lay eggs at 35 °C, while crawlers' survival is negatively affected. The species usually reproduces bisexually, but it can reproduce by parthenogenesis under particular circumstances, such as high temperatures, resulting in lower progeny production. [1]
The ovoviviparous females lay eggs one at a time beneath their bodies, with hatching occurring within 0.25–6 hours. Male and female crawlers are similar in appearance, but males of the Dactylopius austrinus species have shorter and fewer filaments than females. After a period of active dispersal, the crawlers settle down on the cladodes, often near the mother, and colonies are established at the joints of the cladode-trunk, flower-cladode, or fruit-cladode. Various factors can hinder cochineal development, including temperature, rain, and resistance factors of host plants. High temperatures and mechanical action of rain can negatively affect younger instars' survival, resulting in high mortality. Studies have shown that the species produces 4-5 generations per year in the Americas and Australia, with five generations occurring in the warmest areas. [1]
Dactylopius opuntiae is native to Mexico and neighboring countries in Central America but has been introduced to several other areas, including Australia, Algeria, Morocco, Israel, France, India, Kenya, Madagascar, Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and the United States (California and Texas). [2]
Like other members of Dactylopiidae, Dactylopius opuntiae is not affected by parasitoid wasps. In Mexico, its most commonly occurring predatory species have been found to be Leucopis bellula , Sympherobius barberi , and Laetilia coccidivora . [2]
In South Africa, Dactylopius opuntiae was introduced in 1932 along with three other insect species to control the cactus. Dactylopius opuntiae cleaned 75% of the infested areas, including those with the highest levels of opuntia infestation. Subsequently, about 90% of the original 900,000 ha returned to sheep-rearing due to the success of the cochineal as a biological control agent. However, dense populations of prickly pear still exist in cold and rainy areas, which are less favorable to the development of Dactylopius opuntiae. Subsequent introductions of Dactylopius opuntiae inside the Kruger National Park in the mid-1990s failed to control Opuntia stricta, confirming the importance of matching particular biotypes of biocontrol agents and host plants for weed control. A new strain of the cochineal was introduced from Opuntia stricta collected in Australia in 1997 with encouraging results. The genotype of Dactylopius opuntiae which effectively controlled Opuntia stricta in South Africa was also introduced in Kenya, resulting in the reduction in flowering and fruiting, and leading to the death of the plants. [1] [3]
De Souza & Hoffmann (2015) assessed the performance of Dactylopius opuntiae in controlling Opuntia monacantha , showing that it was less efficient than the congeneric Dactylopius ceylonicus , which provides complete biological control of this cactus species. Rule & Hoffmann (2018) investigated the effectiveness of the "stricta" biotype of Dactylopius opuntiae as a biological control agent for both Opuntia humifusa and Opuntia stricta. After a semi-field experiment, Dactylopius opuntiae was able to develop equally on both host plants. The dispersal capability of Dactylopius opuntiae away from the first areas of inoculum was assessed to promote a quicker spread of the scale insect. The colonies needed to be inoculated at no more than 10 m in between, as the spread of cochineal is primarily anemophilous. The efficacy of Dactylopius opuntiae is often limited by predator coccinellids and to a greater extent by rain. In South Africa, the use of prickly pear for human consumption, for forage, and as a host plant for the rearing of Dactylopius coccus has increased due to the reduction in the role of the prickly pear as a weed and the success of Dactylopius opuntiae as a biological control agent. [1]
Dactylopius opuntiae can also have a strong negative impact on both the production of prickly pear fruit for fresh consumption and on cladodes as fodder for livestock feed. The cochineal species tends to form variably sized colonies on cladodes, which in some cases are totally covered by the insect. As a consequence, the fruits drop and cladodes dry out and fall off. [1]
Dactylopius opuntiae can have a devastating impact on the production of both prickly pear fruit and cladodes as livestock feed. The species has a tendency to form colonies of varying sizes on cladodes, often completely covering the plant. This leads to the dropping of fruit and the drying out and eventual falling off of the cladodes. The damage starts with yellowish areas and necrosis on the cladodes, which then leads to drying out of the entire plant within a year. The woody stems can survive for another six months after this, but the damage is already done. The high population level of Dactylopius opuntiae weakens the plants, which pathogens attack, in turn causing their death. [1]
In northeastern Brazil, Dactylopius opuntiae was imported from Mexico to produce dye, but it has caused significant damage to forage cactus production. In other Brazilian states such as Pernambuco, Paraíba, and Ceará, Dactylopius opuntiae infested over 100,000 hectares, resulting in more than US$100 million in annual damage, with serious socioeconomic consequences for farming communities where milk production is linked to prickly pear cultivation. Since its first detection in Morocco in September 2014, Dactylopius opuntiae has spread rapidly and caused serious damage to Opuntia ficus-indica plants, leading local authorities to uproot and incinerate over 400 hectares of plantations in the Doukkala region. [1] The Moroccan Ministry of Agriculture implemented an emergency plan for Dactylopius opuntiae management in 2016, including a research program focusing on the most important components of cochineal management. Several insecticides such as chlorpyrifos, pyriproxyfen, acetamiprid, spirotetramat, and mineral oils have been authorized for use in Morocco to control the pest. However, chemical treatment of the cochineal colonies only provided temporary solutions against the pest. Several studies have observed that essential oils, botanical extracts, vegetable oils, detergents, and other bioactive chemicals have a strong insecticidal effect on the pest in cactus plantations. Bouharroud et al. (2018) evaluated the efficacy of D-Limonene, a widespread terpene, against Dactylopius opuntiae. The greatest female mortality rate was 99% at 150 ppm 6 days after treatment. Plant clones that are resistant to Dactylopius opuntiae can be an effective way to manage the pest. The thickness of the cactus plant's cuticle and epidermis, as well as the presence of calcium oxalate, play a crucial role in resistance to the pest. In Morocco, eight cultivars have shown immunity-type resistance to Dactylopius opuntiae, and more research is needed to develop resistant cultivars. Mechanical and physical methods, such as pruning and uprooting, can also be used to control the pest, but they are only effective when just a few plants are infested. [4]
The extensive damage caused by Dactylopius opuntiae requires an integrated pest management (IPM) approach. [1]
In 2012, Dactylopius opuntiae was first discovered in southern Lebanon on Opuntia ficus-indica plants. By 2014, the species was found to be widespread in the south of the country and causing severe damage to the cactus plants, whose fruit is an important source of income for local farmers. In 2015, new infestations were observed in neighboring regions. Although the predator beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri was found in association with the Dactylopius opuntiae colonies, their numbers were not high enough to control the pest population. [5]
In 2013, the presence of Dactylopius opuntiae was reported for the first time in Israel. The insect was collected from Opuntia ficus-indica plants in the Hula Valley of the Upper Galilee. [2] [6]
The insect's natural predators help contain the damage they cause in Central American countries where Opuntia ficus-indica originates. [6]
Nopal is a common name in Spanish for Opuntia cacti, as well as for its pads. The name nopal derives from the Nahuatl word nohpalli for the pads of the plant.
Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than the superfamily Coccoidea due to taxonomic uncertainties. Adult females typically have soft bodies and no limbs, and are concealed underneath domed scales, extruding quantities of wax for protection. Some species are hermaphroditic, with a combined ovotestis instead of separate ovaries and testes. Males, in the species where they occur, have legs and sometimes wings, and resemble small flies. Scale insects are herbivores, piercing plant tissues with their mouthparts and remaining in one place, feeding on sap. The excess fluid they imbibe is secreted as honeydew on which sooty mold tends to grow. The insects often have a mutualistic relationship with ants, which feed on the honeydew and protect them from predators. There are about 8,000 described species.
Opuntia ficus-indica, the Indian fig opuntia, fig opuntia, or prickly pear, is a species of cactus that has long been a domesticated crop plant grown in agricultural economies throughout arid and semiarid parts of the world. O. ficus-indica is the most widespread and most commercially important cactus. It is grown primarily as a fruit crop, and also for the vegetable nopales and other uses. Cacti are good crops for dry areas because they efficiently convert water into biomass. O. ficus-indica, as the most widespread of the long-domesticated cactuses, is as economically important as maize and blue agave in Mexico. Opuntia species hybridize easily, but the wild origin of O. ficus-indica is likely to have been in central Mexico, where its closest genetic relatives are found.
Indian fig is a common name for several plants and may refer to:
Rose Ethel Janet White-Haney, known as Jean White-Haney, was a botanist in Queensland, Australia. She was officer-in-charge of the Queensland Board of Advice on Prickly Pear Destruction and helped develop biological control methods for managing the invasive cactus.
Cactoblastis cactorum, the cactus moth, South American cactus moth or nopal moth, is native to Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and southern Brazil. It is one of five species in the genus Cactoblastis that inhabit South America, where many parasitoids, predators and pathogens control the expansion of the moths' population. This species has been introduced into many areas outside its natural range, including Australia, the Caribbean, and South Africa. In some locations, it has spread uncontrollably and was consequently classified an invasive species. However, in other places such as Australia, it has gained favor for its role in the biological control of cacti from the genus Opuntia, such as prickly pear.
Tungi Spirit is the name given to a distilled product made in Saint Helena from the fruit of the prickly or cactus pear.
Opuntia stricta is a species of large cactus that is endemic to the subtropical and tropical coastal areas of the Americas, especially around the Caribbean. Common names include erect prickly pear and nopal estricto (Spanish). The first description as Cactus strictus was published in 1803 by Adrian Hardy Haworth. In 1812 he moved the species to the genus Opuntia.
Opuntia monacantha, commonly known as drooping prickly pear, cochineal prickly pear, or Barbary fig, is a species of plant in the family Cactaceae native to South America.
Common prickly pear is a common name which may refer to certain species of cactus in the genus Opuntia including:
Cochineal prickly pear is a common name which may refer to several species of cactus in the genus Opuntia including:
The cochineal is a scale insect in the suborder Sternorrhyncha, from which the natural dye carmine is derived. A primarily sessile parasite native to tropical and subtropical South America through North America, this insect lives on cacti in the genus Opuntia, feeding on plant moisture and nutrients. The insects are found on the pads of prickly pear cacti, collected by brushing them off the plants, and dried.
Opuntia, commonly called the prickly pear cactus, is a genus of flowering plants in the cactus family Cactaceae, many known for their flavorful fruit and showy flowers. Cacti are well-adapted to aridity, however, they are still vulnerable to alterations in precipitation and temperature driven by climate change. Prickly pear alone is more commonly used to refer exclusively to the fruit, but may also be used for the plant itself; in addition, other names given to the plant and its specific parts include tuna (fruit), sabra, sabbar, nopal from the Nahuatl word nōpalli, nostle (fruit) from the Nahuatl word nōchtli, and paddle cactus. The genus is named for the Ancient Greek city of Opus, where, according to Theophrastus, an edible plant grew and could be propagated by rooting its leaves. The most common culinary species is the "Barbary fig".
Prickly pears include a number of plant species that were introduced and have become invasive in Australia.
Opuntia aurantiaca, commonly known as tiger-pear, jointed cactus or jointed prickly-pear, is a species of cactus from South America. The species occurs naturally in Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay and is considered an invasive species in Africa and Australia.
Melitara doddalis is a species of snout moth in the genus Melitara. It was described by Harrison Gray Dyar Jr. in 1925, and is found in the United States in southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, south-western Texas and in northern Mexico.
Zophodia analamprella is a species of snout moth in the genus Zophodia. It was described by Harrison Gray Dyar Jr. in 1922. It is found in Argentina and is possibly also present in Paraguay.
Dactylopius is a genus of insect in the superfamily Coccoidea, the scale insects. It is the only genus in the family Dactylopiidae. These insects are known commonly as cochineals, a name that also specifically refers to the best-known species, the cochineal. The cochineal is an insect of economic and historical importance as a main source of the red dye carmine. It has reportedly been used for this purpose in the Americas since the 10th century. Genus Dactylopius is also important because several species have been used as agents of biological pest control, and because several are known as invasive species.
Opuntia ficus-indica is a plant that has been part of the landscape of South Africa for over 250 years.
Scymnus (Pullus) latemaculatus, is a species of lady beetle found in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Taiwan.