Deathstalker

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Deathstalker
Deathstalker ST 07.JPG
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Scorpiones
Family: Buthidae
Genus: Leiurus
Species:
L. quinquestriatus
Binomial name
Leiurus quinquestriatus

The deathstalker (Leiurus quinquestriatus) is a species of scorpion, a member of the family Buthidae. It is also known as the Palestine yellow scorpion, [1] [2] [3] [4] Omdurman scorpion, and Naqab desert scorpion, as well as by many other colloquial names, which generally originate from the commercial captive trade of the animal. To eliminate confusion, especially important with potentially dangerous species, the scientific name is normally used to refer to them. The name Leiurus quinquestriatus roughly translates into English as "five-striped smooth-tail". [5] In 2014, the subspecies L. q. hebraeus was separated from it and elevated to its own species Leiurus hebraeus . [6] Other species of the genus Leiurus are also often referred to as "deathstalkers". Leiurus quinquestriatus is yellow, and 30–77 millimetres (1.2–3.0 in) long, with an average of 58 mm (2.3 in). [7]

Contents

Geographic range

Leiurus quinquestriatus can be found in desert and scrubland habitats ranging from North Africa through to the Middle East. Its range covers a wide sweep of territory in the Sahara, Arabian Desert, Thar Desert, and Central Asia, from Algeria and Mali in the west through to Egypt, Ethiopia, Asia Minor and the Arabian Peninsula, eastwards to Kazakhstan and western India in the northeast and southeast.

Venom

A deathstalker eating a cricket in captivity L quinquestriatus2.jpg
A deathstalker eating a cricket in captivity

Neurotoxins in L. quinquestriatus venom include:

Other components :

Hazards

The deathstalker is one of the most dangerous species of scorpions. [10] [11] Its venom is a powerful mixture of neurotoxins, with a low lethal dose. [12] While a sting from this scorpion is extraordinarily painful, it normally would not kill a healthy adult human. However, young children, the elderly, or infirm (such as those with a heart condition and those who are allergic) are at much greater risk. Any envenomation runs the risk of anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening allergic reaction to the venom. A study from Israel shows a high rate of pancreatitis following envenomation. [13] If a sting from Leiurus quinquestriatus does prove deadly, the cause of death is usually pulmonary edema.

Antivenom for the treatment of deathstalker envenomations is produced by pharmaceutical companies AbbVie [14] and Sanofi Pasteur, [15] and by the National Antivenom and Vaccine Production Center in Riyadh. [16] Envenomation by the deathstalker is considered a medical emergency even with antivenom treatment, as its venom is unusually resistant to treatment and typically requires large doses of antivenom. [17]

In the United States and other countries outside of the typical range of the deathstalker, there is the additional complicating factor that none of the existing antivenoms are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (or equivalent agencies) and are only available as investigational drugs (INDs). The US Armed Forces maintain an investigational drug application [18] for the AVPC-Riyadh antivenom in the event of envenomation of soldiers in the Gulf War theater of operations, and the Florida Antivenin Bank, managed by the Miami-Dade Fire Rescue Department, maintains Sanofi Pasteur's Scorpifav antivenom for the deathstalker. [19]

Uses

Deathstalker in Negev Desert, Israel Deathstalker (Leiurus quinquestriatus) 6.jpg
Deathstalker in Negev Desert, Israel

A component of the deathstalker's venom, the peptide chlorotoxin, has shown potential for treating human brain tumors. [20] There has also been some evidence to show that other components of the venom may aid in the regulation of insulin and could be used to treat diabetes.[ citation needed ]

In 2015 clinical trials were beginning of the use of chlorotoxin with a fluorescent molecule attached as brain tumour "paint" (BLZ-100), to mark cancerous cells in real time during an operation. This is important in brain cancer surgery, where it is vital both to remove as many cancerous cells as possible, but not to remove healthy tissue necessary for brain functioning. In preclinical animal trials the technique could highlight extremely small clusters of as few as 200 cancer cells, compared to the standard use of MRI, with a lower limit in excess of 500,000. [21]

Legality

Possession of L. quinquestriatus may be illegal or regulated in countries with laws prohibiting the keeping of dangerous animals in general. Jurisdictions are increasingly and explicitly including L. quinquestriatus in laws requiring permits to keep animals which are not usual pets, or restricting possession of dangerous animals, and in some cases have prohibited the keeping of L. quinquestriatus save by licensed zoos and educational facilities.

In several jurisdictions departments of fish and wildlife require permits for many animals, [22] [23] and a number of cities and municipal governments have prohibited their possession in their bylaws. [24] [25] [26] [27] [28]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scorpion</span> Predatory order of arachnids

Scorpions are predatory arachnids of the order Scorpiones. They have eight legs and are easily recognized by a pair of grasping pincers and a narrow, segmented tail, often carried in a characteristic forward curve over the back and always ending with a stinger. The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back 435 million years. They mainly live in deserts but have adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions, and can be found on all continents except Antarctica. There are over 2,500 described species, with 22 extant (living) families recognized to date. Their taxonomy is being revised to account for 21st-century genomic studies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antivenom</span> Medical treatment for venomous bites and stings

Antivenom, also known as antivenin, venom antiserum, and antivenom immunoglobulin, is a specific treatment for envenomation. It is composed of antibodies and used to treat certain venomous bites and stings. Antivenoms are recommended only if there is significant toxicity or a high risk of toxicity. The specific antivenom needed depends on the species involved. It is given by injection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snakebite</span> Injury caused by bite from snakes

A snakebite is an injury caused by the bite of a snake, especially a venomous snake. A common sign of a bite from a venomous snake is the presence of two puncture wounds from the animal's fangs. Sometimes venom injection from the bite may occur. This may result in redness, swelling, and severe pain at the area, which may take up to an hour to appear. Vomiting, blurred vision, tingling of the limbs, and sweating may result. Most bites are on the hands, arms, or legs. Fear following a bite is common with symptoms of a racing heart and feeling faint. The venom may cause bleeding, kidney failure, a severe allergic reaction, tissue death around the bite, or breathing problems. Bites may result in the loss of a limb or other chronic problems or even death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charybdotoxin</span> Chemical compound, scorpion neurotoxin

Charybdotoxin (ChTX) is a 37 amino acid neurotoxin from the venom of the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus (deathstalker) that blocks calcium-activated potassium channels. This blockade causes hyperexcitability of the nervous system. It is a close homologue of agitoxin and both toxins come from Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus. It is named after Charybdis, a sea monster from Greek myth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fattail scorpion</span> Genus of scorpions

Fattail scorpion or fat-tailed scorpion is the common name given to scorpions of the genus Androctonus, one of the most dangerous groups of scorpion species in the world. The genus was first described in 1828 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spider bite</span> Bite caused by a spider

A spider bite, also known as arachnidism, is an injury resulting from the bite of a spider. The effects of most bites are not serious. Most bites result in mild symptoms around the area of the bite. Rarely they may produce a necrotic skin wound or severe pain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chlorotoxin</span> Chemical compound

Chlorotoxin is a 36-amino acid peptide found in the venom of the deathstalker scorpion which blocks small-conductance chloride channels. The fact that chlorotoxin binds preferentially to glioma cells has allowed the development of methods for the treatment and diagnosis of several types of cancer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scyllatoxin</span> Scorpion toxin

Scyllatoxin (also leiurotoxin I) is a toxin, from the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus, which blocks small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels. It is named after Scylla, a sea monster from Greek mythology. Charybdotoxin is also found in the venom from the same species of scorpion, and is named after the sea monster Charybdis. In Greek mythology, Scylla and Charybdis lived on rocks on opposing sides of a narrow strait of water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scorpion sting</span> Medical condition

A scorpion sting is an injury caused by the stinger of a scorpion resulting in the medical condition known as scorpionism, which may vary in severity. The anatomical part of the scorpion that delivers the sting is called a "telson". In typical cases, scorpion stings usually result in pain, paresthesia, and variable swelling. In serious cases, scorpion stings may involve the envenomation of humans by toxic scorpions, which may result in extreme pain, serious illness, or even death depending on the toxicity of the venom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lq2</span>

Lq2 is a component of the venom of the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus. It blocks various potassium channels, among others the inward-rectifier potassium ion channel ROMK1.

<i>Hottentotta tamulus</i> Species of scorpion

Hottentotta tamulus, the Indian red scorpion, also known as the eastern Indian scorpion, is a species of scorpion of the family Buthidae. It occurs in most of India, eastern Pakistan and the eastern lowlands of Nepal, and recently from Sri Lanka.

<i>Leiurus</i> Genus of scorpions

Leiurus is a genus of scorpion of the family Buthidae. The most common species, L. quinquestriatus, is also known under the common name Deathstalker. It is distributed widely across North Africa and the Middle East, including the western and southern Arabian Peninsula and southeastern Turkey. At least one species occurs in West Africa.

<i>Tityus serrulatus</i> Species of scorpion

Tityus serrulatus, the Brazilian yellow scorpion, is a species of scorpion of the family Buthidae. It is native to Brazil, and its venom is extremely toxic. It is the most dangerous scorpion in South America and is responsible for the most fatal cases.

<i>Androctonus bicolor</i> Species of scorpion

Androctonus bicolor, the black fat-tailed scorpion, is a scorpion species of the family Buthidae. It is black in color and can grow up to 8 cm. Black fat-tailed scorpions come from the family Buthidae, which is the largest of the scorpion family. They can be identified by their hefty physique. They tend to move very fast, and are of an aggressive nature. Black fat–tailed scorpions can live for up to 5 years. Adults can reach up to 40-60 millimeters, 80 millimeters being the maximum. These scorpions typically possess black and brown coloration. These scorpions enjoy making scrapes with wood and rocks, and are nocturnal, thus they hide in crevices or certain objects during the day. They stay in shade to retain moisture in their bodies, as they are susceptible to losing moisture due to their environmental preference.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epidemiology of snakebites</span>

Most snakebites are caused by non-venomous snakes. Of the roughly 3,700 known species of snake found worldwide, only 15% are considered dangerous to humans. Snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica. There are two major families of venomous snakes, Elapidae and Viperidae. 325 species in 61 genera are recognized in the family Elapidae and 224 species in 22 genera are recognized in the family Viperidae, In addition, the most diverse and widely distributed snake family, the colubrids, has approximately 700 venomous species, but only five genera—boomslangs, twig snakes, keelback snakes, green snakes, and slender snakes—have caused human fatalities.

TsIV is a toxin from the venom of the Brazilian scorpion Tityus serrulatus which slows the inactivation of sodium channels.

<i>Leiurus abdullahbayrami</i> Species of scorpion

Leiurus abdullahbayrami is a species of scorpion in the family Buthidae. Its venom is highly toxic to humans, but can be used in medical development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scorpionism in Central America</span>

Scorpionism is defined as the accidental envenomation of humans by toxic scorpions. If the injection of venom in a human results in death, this is defined as scorpionism. This is seen all over the world but is predominantly seen in the tropical and subtropical areas. These areas include Mexico, northern South America and southeast Brazil in the Western hemisphere. In the Eastern hemisphere, scorpionism possess a public health threat in the regions of South Africa, the Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent.

Humans use scorpions both practically, for medicine, food, and pets, and symbolically, whether as gods, to ward off harm, or to associate a product or business with the evident power of the small but deadly animal.

References

  1. ↑ Minton, Sherman A. (1974). Venom diseases. Thomas. p. 235. ISBN   978-0-398-03051-3 . Retrieved April 30, 2010.
  2. ↑ The Staff of Cambridge Scientific Abstracts (1993). Entomology abstracts, Volume 24, Issues 10-12. Cambridge Scientific Abstracts. Retrieved April 30, 2010.
  3. ↑ Werness, Hope B. (2004). The Continuum encyclopedia of animal symbolism in art. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 476. ISBN   978-0-8264-1525-7 . Retrieved April 30, 2010.
  4. ↑ Young, Mark (1998). The Guinness Book of World Records 1998. Bantam Books. p. 768. ISBN   978-0-553-57895-9 . Retrieved April 30, 2010.
  5. ↑ Respectively from Greek leios "smooth" and oura "tail", and Latin quinque "five" and striatus "striated, grooved, fluted".
  6. ↑ Lowe G, Yagmur EA, Kovarik F. A Review of the Genus Leiurus Ehrenberg, 1828 (Scorpiones: Buthidae) with Description of Four New Species from the Arabian Peninsula. Euscorpius. 2014 (191):1-129. PDF.
  7. ↑ Amr, Zuhair S.; El-Oran, Ratib (1994). "Systematics and distribution of scorpions (Arachnida, Scorpionida) in Jordan". Italian Journal of Zoology. 61 (2): 185–190. doi: 10.1080/11250009409355881 .
  8. ↑ Catterall WA, Cestèle S, Yarov-Yarovoy V, Yu FH, Konoki K, Scheuer T (February 2007). "Voltage-gated ion channels and gating modifier toxins". Toxicon. 49 (2): 124–41. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.09.022. PMID   17239913.
  9. ↑ Kubo Y, Adelman JP, Clapham DE, et al. (December 2005). "International Union of Pharmacology. LIV. Nomenclature and molecular relationships of inwardly rectifying potassium channels". Pharmacological Reviews . 57 (4): 509–26. doi:10.1124/pr.57.4.11. PMID   16382105. S2CID   11588492.
  10. ↑ "The World’s Most Dangerous Scorpions" Planet Deadly.
  11. ↑ "Not so scary scorpions" National Science Foundation.
  12. ↑ Lucian K. Ross (2008). "Leiurus quinquestriatus (Ehrenberg, 1828)" (PDF). The Scorpion Files. Retrieved September 17, 2011.
  13. ↑ Sofer S, Shalev H, Weizman Z, Shahak E, Gueron M (1991). "Acute pancreatitis in children following envenomation by the yellow scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus". Toxicon. 29 (1): 125–8. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(91)90045-s. PMID   2028471.
  14. ↑ "Scorpion Antivenom Twyford (North Africa)". MAVIN. Poison Centre Munich. January 15, 2010. Retrieved December 1, 2010.
  15. ↑ "Scorpifav". MAVIN. Poison Centre Munich. January 15, 2010. Retrieved December 1, 2010.
  16. ↑ "Saudi National Antivenom and Vaccine Production Center". Archived from the original on July 7, 2011. Retrieved December 1, 2010.
  17. ↑ Goldfrank, Lewis R. (2006). Goldfrank's toxicologic emergencies. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 2064. ISBN   978-0-07-147914-1 . Retrieved November 23, 2010.
  18. ↑ Eric A. Shalita; Ryan D. Wells (2007). "Treatment of yellow scorpion (Leiurus quinquestriatus) sting: a case report". Journal of the American Pharmacists Association . 47 (5): 616–619. doi:10.1331/JAPhA.2007.07051. PMID   17848352.
  19. ↑ "Antivenom: Species Covered" (PDF). Miami-Dade Fire Rescue Department. January 2009. #40. Retrieved April 30, 2020.
  20. ↑ Liliana Soroceanu; Yancey Gillespie; M. B. Khazaeli; Harald Sontheimer (1998). "Use of chlorotoxin for targeting of primary brain tumors". Cancer Research . 58 (21): 4871–4879. PMID   9809993.
  21. ↑ O'Brien, Alex (10 September 2015). "How to light up a tumour - Alex O'Brien" – via www.theguardian.com.
  22. ↑ "Appendix: Exceptions to unrestricted wild animal list" (PDF). Wild Bird and Animal Importation and Possession. Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department. August 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 23, 2015. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
  23. ↑ In the UK a licence is required under the 1976 Dangerous Wild Animals Act
  24. ↑ "Ordinance No: 07-02. Public Nuisance Ordinance" (PDF). Town of Morrison, Brown County, Wisconsin. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 24, 2012. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
  25. ↑ "Licensing of dogs and cats; regulation of animals" (PDF). Village of Pulaski, Wisconsin. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 11, 2012. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
  26. ↑ "Public Health and Welfare" (PDF). City of Green Bay, Wisconsin. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 11, 2012. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
  27. ↑ "Animal Ordinances Revision as of 4/11/05 passed at 4/11/05Council Mtg" (PDF). City of Brooklyn, Ohio. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 21, 2010. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
  28. ↑ "Animal Ordinance Draft". Town of Rockland, Brown County, Wisconsin. November 28, 2007. Archived from the original (DOC) on March 15, 2012. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
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