Energy policy of Turkey

Last updated

The energy policy of Turkey is to secure national energy supply [1] and reduce imports, [2] as in the 2010s fossil fuel costs were [3] a large part of Turkey's import bill. [4] This includes using energy efficiently. However, as of 2019, little research has been done on the policies Turkey uses to reduce energy poverty, which also include some subsidies for home heating and electricity use. [5] The energy strategy includes "within the context of sustainable development, giving due consideration to environmental concerns all along the energy chain". [2] Turkey's energy policy has been criticized for not looking much beyond 2023, [6] not sufficiently involving the private sector, [7] and for being inconsistent with Turkey's climate policy. [8]

Contents

Security of supply

More renewable energy would reduce fossil fuel imports to Turkey Renewable energy reduces fossil fuel imports to Turkey.jpg
More renewable energy would reduce fossil fuel imports to Turkey

Turkey meets a quarter of its energy demand from national resources. [9] But, as of 2019, the country is almost 40% fossil fuel energy dependant on Russia. [10] In the 2010s fossil fuel imports were probably the biggest structural vulnerability of the country's economy: [4] they cost $41 billion in 2019, about a fifth of the total import bill, [11] and were a large part of the 2018 current account deficit [12] and debt problems.

To secure energy supply the government is building new gas pipelines, [4] and diversifying energy sources. As of 2020 there is a surplus of electricity generation capacity, [13] however the government aims at meeting the forecast increase in demand for electricity in Turkey by building the first nuclear power plant in Turkey and more solar, wind, hydro and coal-fired power plants. [14] As an oil and gas importer Turkey can increase security of supply by increasing the proportion of renewable electricity. [9] The International Energy Agency has suggested that Turkey implement a carbon market. [15] In the long term a carbon tax would reduce import dependency by speeding development of national solar and wind energy. [16]

Because government in Turkey is very centralised energy policy is a national policy. However at certain times of year the east generates excess electricity as it has most hydroelectricity in Turkey, but far less industry and population than the west. This was part of the cause of the nationwide blackout in 2015 and therefore policy includes improving electricity transmission. [17] As well as natural gas storage and regasification plants, [18] the government supports pumped-storage hydroelectricity. [19]

Energy efficiency

Despite the Energy Efficiency Law and target to reduce energy intensity by at least 20 percent between 2011 and 2023; between 2005 and 2015 Turkey's energy intensity increased by 7 percent. [15] According to one study if energy policy was changed, most importantly to remove fossil fuel subsidies, at least 20% of energy could be saved in 2020. [20] Energy Minister Fatih Dönmez said in 2019 that improvement of public buildings should take the lead and that efficiency improvements are an important source of jobs. [21]

Fossil fuel subsidies and taxes

In the 21st century fossil fuel subsidies are around 0.2% of GDP, [22] including US$1.6 billion annually between 2015 and 2017. [5] The energy minister Fatih Dönmez supports coal [23] [24] and most energy subsidies are to coal, [25] which has been strongly criticised by the OECD. [26] Capacity mechanism payments to coal-fired power stations in Turkey in 2019 totalled 720 million lira and to gas-fired power stations in Turkey 542 million lira. [27] As of 2018 the tax per unit energy on gasoline was higher than diesel, [28] despite diesel cars on average emitting more lung damaging NOx. [29] The price of residential gas and electricity is set by the government. [30]

Natural Gas oligopoly

The purpose of the capacity market for electricity is claimed to be to secure supply: however despite almost all natural gas being imported some gas-fired power plants received capacity payments in 2019 whereas some non-fossil firm power such as demand response could not. [31] State-owned BOTAŞ controls 80% of the natural gas market and thus the price, [32] and due to the many sources of supply in the region and liquefied natural gas from overseas [33] wholesale prices in USD are forecast to remain stable or decrease in the long-term. [34] [35] However the wholesale gas market is not as competitive as in the EU, as Turkey does not want to split up BOTAŞ or give other power companies in Turkey fair use of BOTAŞ’ pipelines, so has not joined ENTSO-G. [15] Turkey's long-term contracts with all its current suppliers –Russia, Azerbaijan and Iran– are due to expire in the 2020s. [4] Exploration for gas in the Eastern Mediterranean is subsidized [36] [25] and is a cause of geopolitical tension due to the Cyprus dispute. [37]

Coal subsidies

Free coal is distributed to the poor by the Ministry of Family and Social Policy. Free coal distributed to poor people by the Family and Social Policies Ministry of Turkey.JPG
Free coal is distributed to the poor by the Ministry of Family and Social Policy.

Coal in Turkey is heavily subsidized. [39] As of 2019 the government aims to keep the share of coal in the energy portfolio at around the same level in the medium to long term. [40] The place of coal in the government's energy policy was detailed in 2019 by the Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research (SETA), Turkey's lobbying organisation. [41] Despite protests against coal power plants [42] Afşin-Elibistan C is being constructed by Turkey's state owned generator and Emba Hunutlu with Chinese finance. [43] Even in cities where natural gas is available the government supports poor households with free coal. [38]

Finance

Renewable energy increases industrial production in Turkey Renewable energy increases industrial production in Turkey.jpg
Renewable energy increases industrial production in Turkey
Renewable energy increases employment in Turkey Renewable energy increases employment in Turkey.jpg
Renewable energy increases employment in Turkey

As of 2018 for residential consumers ”high cost is the most important problem of Turkey’s energy system”. [44] Europe supports energy efficiency and renewable energy via the 1 billion euro Mid-size Sustainable Energy Financing Facility (MidSEFF). [15] Up to 150kWh per month free electricity is provided to 2 million poor families. [45] Fatih Birol, the head of the International Energy Agency said in 2019 that, because of its falling price, the focus should be on maximizing onshore wind power in Turkey. [46] The economics of coal power have been modelled [47] by Carbon Tracker and they calculate that by 2020, both new wind and solar power were cheaper than building new coal power plants; and they forecast that wind will become cheaper than existing coal plants in 2027, and solar in 2023. [48]

Politics

Without subsidies new and some existing coal power would be unprofitable, and it is claimed that path dependence, political influence, and distorted markets are what is keeping it going. [49] Although the coal industry and the government are said to have a close relationship, economic downturn and the falling cost of wind and solar may increase pressure on coal subsidies. [50] Future import of gas from Northern Iraq may depend on relationships with the KRG, the central government of Iraq and Rosneft. [51] Hydroelectric plants, especially new ones, are sometimes controversial in local, international and environmental politics. [52] The EU might be able to persuade Turkey to cooperate on climate change by supporting policies that reduce the country's external energy dependency in a sustainable manner. [15]

State energy companies include: Eti Mine, Turkish Coal Enterprises, Turkish Hard Coal Enterprises, the Electricity Generation Company, BOTAŞ and TEİAŞ - the electricity trading and transmission company. [53] The government holds a quarter of total installed electricity supply and often offers prices below market levels. [54]

Energy transition

Nuclear safety regulations and human resources could be improved [55] by cooperation with Euratom. [15] In 2018 a new regulator was set up and $0.15 per kWh of generated electricity will be set aside for waste management. [56]

A plan for solar power in Turkey beyond 2023 is needed [57] and amending regulations on rooftop solar panels has been suggested to simplify installation on existing buildings and mandate for new buildings. [58]

In an attempt to reduce fossil fuel imports local production of electric cars and establishing solar cell factories is supported. [59]

Health and environment

Retrofitting equipment for pollution control such as flue-gas desulfurization, at old lignite-fuelled plants such as Soma, [60] might not be financially possible, as they use outdated technology. [61] Data on SO2, NOx and particulate air pollution from each large plant is collected by government [62] but not published.

The energy policy aim of reducing imports (e.g. of gas) conflicts with the climate change policy aim of reducing emission of greenhouse gases as some local resources (e.g. lignite) emit a lot of CO
2. According to Ümit Şahin, who teaches climate change at Sabancı University, Turkey must abandon fossil fuel completely and switch to 100% renewable energy by 2050. [63]

History

During the late 20th and early 21st centuries the country was very exposed to oil and gas price volatility. [64] However around the turn of the century many gas fired power plants were built, and BOTAŞ extended the national gas pipeline network to most of the urban population. [65] As Turkey has almost no natural gas of its own this increased import dependancy, particularly on Russian gas. [66] Therefore many more regasification plants and gas storage (such as the gas storage at Lake Tuz) were built in the early 21st century, thus ensuring a much longer buffer should the main international import pipelines be cut for any reason. However growth in Turkish electricity demand has often been overestimated. Although much energy infrastructure was privatised in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, as of 2020, energy remained highly state controlled. [64] The nuclear power debate has a long history, with the 2018 construction start at Akkuyu being the sixth major attempt to build a nuclear power plant since 1960. [67]

External resources

See also

Related Research Articles

Coal A combustible sedimentary rock composed primarily of carbon

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements; chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Coal is formed when dead plant matter decays into peat and is converted into coal by the heat and pressure of deep burial over millions of years. Vast deposits of coal originate in former wetlands—called coal forests—that covered much of the Earth's tropical land areas during the late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) and Permian times.

Fossil fuel fuel formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms

A fossil fuel is a fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis. Such organisms and their resulting fossil fuels typically have an age of millions of years, and sometimes more than 650 million years. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Commonly used derivatives of fossil fuels include kerosene and propane. Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon-to-hydrogen ratios, to liquids, to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates.

Sustainable energy Principle of using energy without compromising the needs of future generations

Sustainable energy is the practice of using energy in a way that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

India is the world's third largest producer and third largest consumer of electricity. The national electric grid in India has an installed capacity of 368.79 GW as of 31 December 2019. Renewable power plants, which also include large hydroelectric plants, constitute 34.86% of India's total installed capacity. During the 2018-19 fiscal year, the gross electricity generated by utilities in India was 1,372 TWh and the total electricity generation in the country was 1,547 TWh. The gross electricity consumption in 2018-19 was 1,181 kWh per capita. In 2015-16, electric energy consumption in agriculture was recorded as being the highest (17.89%) worldwide. The per capita electricity consumption is low compared to most other countries despite India having a low electricity tariff.

Energy policy of the United States Where and how the United States gets electrical and other power

The energy policy of the United States is determined by federal, state, and local entities in the United States, which address issues of energy production, distribution, and consumption, such as building codes and gas mileage standards. Energy policy may include legislation, international treaties, subsidies and incentives to investment, guidelines for energy conservation, taxation and other public policy techniques.

The current energy policy of the United Kingdom is set out in the Energy White Paper of May 2007 and Low Carbon Transition Plan of July 2009, building on previous work including the 2003 Energy White Paper and the Energy Review Report in 2006. It was led by the Department of Energy and Climate Change, then headed by Amber Rudd. The current focus of policy are on reforming the electricity market, rolling out smart meters and improving the energy efficiency of the UK building stock through the Green Deal.

The energy policy of India is largely defined by the country's expanding energy deficit and increased focus on developing alternative sources of energy, particularly nuclear, solar and wind energy. India ranks 81 position in overall energy self-sufficiency at 66% in 2014.

Energy in France

Energy in France is the energy and electricity production, consumption and import in France.

Energy policy of Australia

The energy policy of Australia is subject to the regulatory and fiscal influence of all three levels of government in Australia, although only the State and Federal levels determine policy for primary industries such as coal.

Fossil fuel phase-out Stopping burning coal, oil and gas

Fossil fuel phase-out is the gradual reduction of the use of fossil fuels to zero use. Current efforts in fossil fuel phase-out involve replacing fossil fuels with alternative energy sources in sectors such as transport, heating and industry.

Energy subsidy Government subsidies of electricity and gasoline, etc.

Energy subsidies are measures that keep prices for consumers below market levels or for producers above market levels, or reduce costs for consumers and producers. Energy subsidies may be direct cash transfers to producers, consumers, or related bodies, as well as indirect support mechanisms, such as tax exemptions and rebates, price controls, trade restrictions, and limits on market access.

Energy in Germany

Energy in Germany is sourced predominantly by fossil fuels, followed by wind, nuclear power, solar, biomass and hydro.

Solar power in Turkey Heat and electrical energy from the sun in the Eurasian country

Turkey is located in an advantageous position in the Middle East and Southeast Europe for solar energy. Solar potential is very high in Turkey, especially in the South Eastern Anatolia and Mediterranean provinces. Compared to the rest of the region, insolation values are higher and conditions for solar power generation are comparable to Spain. 7.5 TWh was generated in 2018 which was 2.5% of Turkey's electricity. Installed capacity was 5GW, with the Energy Ministry planning to have another 10GW installed in the 2020s. However solar power in Turkey could increase far more quickly if subsidies for coal were abolished and the auction system was improved.

The distinct methods of electricity generation can incur significantly different costs and these costs can occur at significantly different times relative to when the power is used. Also, calculations of these costs can be made at the point of connection to a load or to the electricity grid. The costs include the initial capital, and the costs of continuous operation, fuel, and maintenance as well as the costs of de-commissioning and remediating any environmental damage.

Energy in Turkey

Turkey consumes over 6 exajoules of primary energy per year, over 20 megawatt hours (MW/h) per person. 88% of energy is fossil fuels and the energy policy of Turkey includes reducing fossil fuel imports, which are over 20% of import costs and three quarters of the current account deficit. Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey are about 6 tons/person year, which is more than the global average.

The Electricity Generation Company is the largest electric power company in Turkey. Owned by the government it produces and trades electricity throughout the country.

Electricity sector in Turkey

Each year about 300 TWh of electricity is used in Turkey, which is almost a fifth of the amount of primary energy in Turkey. As the electricity sector in Turkey burns a lot of local and imported coal the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey is the country's coal-fired power stations, many of which are subsidized. Imports of gas, mostly for power stations in Turkey, is the main import cost for the economy of Turkey. However solar power in Turkey and wind power in Turkey are being increased and balanced by the country's existing hydropower.

Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey Climate-changing gases from the Eurasian country

Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey are the contributions within Turkey to the emission of greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide or hydrofluorocarbons. Turkey's human contributions to emissions can be segmented by sector, such as looking specifically at Turkey's power stations or transport. In addition, the natural and agricultural landscape of Turkey contribute to its national greenhouse gas emissions, with methane and N2O from agriculture more than offset by carbon dioxide trapped in forests, thus slightly reducing Turkey's overall emissions. Turkey's policies on energy, industry, and its explicit policies on climate change affect its level of emissions, and these policies are shaped by the relationship between emissions and economic activity. Finally, media, academic, and individual figures have provided commentary on Turkey's policies and levels of emissions.

Coal in Turkey Coal mining, power, industry, and its health and environmental problems in the Eurasian country

Coal supplied over a quarter of Turkey's primary energy from the 1990s to the 2010s. The heavily subsidised coal industry generates over a third of the country's electricity, causes a third of greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey and employs 38,000 people. Every year, thousands of people die prematurely from coal-related causes, the most common of which is local air pollution.

References

  1. ↑ Öztürk, Sinan (2020-01-21). "Turkey Wealth Fund eyes becoming strategic investment arm of the country". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 2020-04-02.
  2. 1 2 "TURKEY'S ENERGY PROFILE AND STRATEGY". Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Turkey) . Retrieved 11 March 2020.
  3. ↑ "$2 gas in Europe is here: who will blink first?" (PDF).
  4. 1 2 3 4 "TURKSTREAM IMPACT ON TURKEY'S ECONOMY AND ENERGY SECURITY" (PDF). "Istanbul Economics" & "The Center for Economics and Foreign Policy" - EDAM. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
  5. 1 2 "Energy pricing and non-market flows in Turkey's energy sector" (PDF). SHURA Energy Transition Center.
  6. ↑ "How Turkey Can Ensure a Successful Energy Transition". Center for American Progress. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
  7. ↑ "Turkey's foreign and security policy 'needs to support its energy goals'". Hürriyet. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
  8. ↑ Turkey 2018 Report p92, European Commission, 17 April 2018
  9. 1 2 "COBENEFITS" . Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  10. ↑ "A cost-benefit analysis of Idlib for Turkey and Russia". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 2020-03-23.
  11. ↑ "Turkey's energy import bill falls more than 4% in 2019". Daily Sabah . 2020-02-06.
  12. ↑ "Coal Power Plants". Coal in Turkey. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
  13. ↑ Europe Beyond Coal(2020), page 15
  14. ↑ BAYRAKTAR, ALPARSLAN (4 December 2018). "Analysis: Energy transition in Turkey". Hürriyet.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "A NEW STRATEGY FOR EU-TURKEY ENERGY COOPERATION". Turkish Policy Quarterly. 27 November 2018.
  16. ↑ Bavbek, Gökşin. "Assessing the Potential Efects of a Carbon Tax in Turkey" (PDF). EDAM Energy and Climate Change Climate Action Paper Series 2016/6. p. 9. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
  17. ↑ "EBRD to finance electricity distribution network expansion in Turkey". Power Technology | Energy News and Market Analysis. 2019-12-20. Retrieved 2020-03-12.
  18. ↑ "Number of licenses issued for gas exports from Turkey reaches 18". Daily Sabah . Anadolu Agency. 2020-02-11.
  19. ↑ "Turkey, China, US to build pumped-storage hydro plant". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 2020-04-13.
  20. ↑ Sever, S. Duygu. "Accelerating the Energy Transition in the Southern Mediterranean" (PDF).
  21. ↑ "Energy efficiency to raise savings in public sector". Daily Sabah. 2019-12-08.
  22. ↑ Acar, Sevil; Challe, Sarah; Christopoulos, Stamatios; Christo, Giovanna (2018). "Fossil fuel subsidies as a lose-lose: Fiscal and environmental burdens in Turkey". New Perspectives on Turkey. 58: 93–124. doi:10.1017/npt.2018.7.
  23. ↑ "Analysis: New Turkish energy minister bullish for coal -- but lira weakness limits market". S & P Global. 12 Jul 2018.
  24. ↑ "Court says 'environment report necessary' for planned coal mine in western Turkey". Demirören News Agency. 10 August 2018.
  25. 1 2 "Fossil Fuel Support - TUR", OECD, accessed August 2018.
  26. ↑ "Taxing Energy Use 2019 : Using Taxes for Climate Action". OECD . Retrieved 2020-04-13.
  27. ↑ "Kapasite mekanizmasıyla 2019'da 40 santrale 1.6 milyar lira ödendi" (in Turkish). Enerji Günlüğü. 2020-02-06.
  28. ↑ "Taxing Energy Use 2019: Country Note – Turkey" (PDF). OECD .
  29. ↑ Leggett, Theo (2018-01-21). "Reality Check: Are diesel cars always the most harmful?". BBC News. Retrieved 2020-04-13.
  30. ↑ "Erdoğan announces discounts on residence electricity and natural gas prices ahead of Turkey's elections". Hürriyet Daily News. 25 December 2018.
  31. ↑ "ELEKTRİK PİYASASI KAPASİTE MEKANİZMASI YÖNETMELİĞİ," Resmî Gazete Issue:30307 Article 1 and Article 6 clause 2) h), 20 Jan 2018
  32. ↑ "Satış Fiyat Tarifesi | BOTAŞ - Boru Hatları İle Petrol Taşıma Anonim Şirketi". www.botas.gov.tr. Retrieved 2020-03-09.
  33. ↑ "The LNG moment: How US production could change more than just markets". Atlantic Council. 2019-04-16. Retrieved 2020-03-09.
  34. ↑ "Supply diversity, optimal prices lucrative for Turkey's energy demand". Daily Sabah. 12 March 2019.
  35. ↑ "Who Will Feed The LNG Monster?". Forbes. 6 February 2019.
  36. ↑ "Turkey to continue gas drilling work around Cyprus: Foreign minister". Anadolu Agency. 16 October 2018.
  37. ↑ Lawless, Ghislaine (2020-02-24). "What lies beneath: gas-pricing disputes and recent events in Southern Europe". Arbitration Blog. Retrieved 2020-03-09.
  38. 1 2 "2020 Sosyal yardımlaşma kömür yardımı nasıl alınır? Kömür yardımı başvuru şartları ve işlemleri" (in Turkish). Haber Port. 3 March 2020.
  39. ↑ Şahin (2018), p. 37
  40. ↑ Tech review 7th communication (2019), p. 20.
  41. ↑ "YERLİ VE MİLLİ ENERJİ POLİTİKALARI EKSENİNDE KÖMÜR" (PDF). SETAV. Retrieved 13 February 2019.
  42. ↑ "Protest against coal power at Sirnak (Turkish)".
  43. ↑ "Emba Hunutlu coal power plant". Banktrack. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  44. ↑ "Voters in Turkey keep energy policy in mind when voting: Survey". Hürriyet Daily News. 19 March 2019.
  45. ↑ "2 milyon 22 bin ailenin 80 liraya kadar elektrik faturasını devlet ödeyecek". Diken. 28 February 2019.
  46. ↑ sabah, daily (2019-12-30). "IEA head: Turkey could benefit from energy resource glut in upcoming period". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 2020-03-12.
  47. ↑ "GLOBAL COAL POWER ECONOMICS MODEL METHODOLOGY" (PDF).
  48. ↑ "WIND VS COAL POWER IN TURKEY/SOLAR PV VS COAL IN TURKEY" (PDF). Carbon Tracker . 2020.
  49. ↑ Roberts, David (2020-03-14). "4 astonishing signs of coal's declining economic viability". Vox. Retrieved 2020-03-21.
  50. ↑ Sencan, Gokce (2017). "Political Reasoning and Mechanisms behind Turkey's Coal-Intensive Energy Policy in the Era of Renewables". University of California, Santa Barbara. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.24500.86407.Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  51. ↑ "TURKEY AND THE KURDISTAN REGION OF IRAQ: STRAINED ENERGY RELATIONS". Turkish Policy Quarterly. 27 November 2018.
  52. ↑ Eren, Ayşen (July 2018). "Transformation of the water-energy nexus in Turkey: Re-imagining hydroelectricity infrastructure". Energy Research & Social Science. 41: 22–31. doi: 10.1016/j.erss.2018.04.013 .
  53. ↑ "Turkey's state energy companies to invest $1.5B in 2019". Daily Sabah. 18 October 2018.
  54. ↑ Pamuk, Humeyra. "Once darling of foreign investors, Turkey's power market struggles". Reuters . Retrieved 11 October 2018.
  55. ↑ "Managing the Risks of Nuclear Energy: The Turkish Case" . Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  56. ↑ "Turkey sets up new nuclear regulator". Nuclear Engineering International. 13 July 2018.
  57. ↑ "Lessons from global experiences for accelerating energy transition in Turkey through solar and wind power" (PDF). Shura. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
  58. ↑ Aşıcı (2017), page 44
  59. ↑ "Turkey to start local solar cell production on June 15". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 2020-04-13.
  60. ↑ "Our Continuing Investments". Konya Şeker. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  61. ↑ "Turkey's Compliance with the Industrial Emissions Directive" (PDF). tepav. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  62. ↑ Hatipoglu, Hakan. "Inventory of LCPs in Turkey LCP Database explained and explored" (PDF). Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  63. ↑ Şahin (2019), p. 30
  64. 1 2 "Turkey - Countries & Regions". IEA. Retrieved 2020-04-13.
  65. ↑ "BOTAŞ strategic plan 2015-2019" (PDF).
  66. ↑ Bauomy, Jasmin (2020-01-08). "Europe needs gas and Russia has it - the story behind the new pipeline". euronews. Retrieved 2020-03-12.
  67. ↑ Aydın, Cem İskender (2020-01-01). "Nuclear energy debate in Turkey: Stakeholders, policy alternatives, and governance issues". Energy Policy. 136: 111041. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111041. ISSN   0301-4215.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.