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The English relative words are words in English used to mark a clause, noun phrase or preposition phrase as relative. The central relative words in English include who, whom, whose, which, why, and while, as shown in the following examples, each of which has the relative clause in bold:
Most also belong to the set of English interrogative words but function differently as relative words.
The subordinator that is widely regarded as a relative word, though one with different properties from the others. [lower-alpha 1]
Semantically speaking, relative words typically refer to some antecedent in the containing phrase or clause. For example, who within the teacher of mine who likes apples does not question the identity of a person, but rather refers to "the teacher of mine", which in turn denotes some particular person.
All of the words may have singular or plural antecedents. For example, the customer who was cheated/the customers who were cheated.
That differs from the other relative words in that, like other subordinators, it lacks semantic content, referring or otherwise. [2] : 955, 990
Each relative word also has a syntactic function in a phrase or clause. For example, in the person who arrived, who functions as the subject of the relative clause. Different words have different functions depending on their lexical category and form. For example, while a plain [lower-alpha 4] pronoun like who may typically function as a subject or object, its genitive form functions only as a determiner (e.g., the person [whose keys] I found).
A relative word occurs within a relative phrase, which appears in clause-initial position. A simple relative phrase consists of a relative word by itself (where within the restaurant where we dined; who within the man who you introduced me to). A complex relative phrase also has other material; it is exemplified by to whom within the man to whom you introduced me, from under which within the rock from under which it had crawled, and whose car within the man whose car you borrowed. [2] : 1039
A fused construction is one in which a word or phrase fuses has two functions at once. A simple type of fused construction (not a relative) is exemplified by any within I didn't notice any: Although a noun phrase (such as any food) is normally headed by a noun, and although any is normally (as in any food) a dependent, within I didn't notice any it heads a noun phrase and thus functions as a fused dependent-head. [2] : 56
Similarly, a fused relative is a noun phrase or preposition phrase (not a clause, but containing one) [2] : 1068–1070 that is headed by a relative phrase (most commonly by a simple relative phrase, and thus by a relative word alone), and that lacks an antecedent. [2] : 63, 1035–1036, 1068 For example, the fused relative construction who you want within Believe who you want contains the relative phrase who. This has functions within both the NP that contains the relative clause and within the relative clause itself: functions that are fused. [2] : 1073
The fused relative is also called a free relative, [19] : 417, 431 free relative clause, [15] : 200–202 [lower-alpha 6] nominal relative clause, and independent relative clause. [21] : 165
A fused relative may be headed by a non-compound word, such as what, by a where+preposition compound, or by a compound with -ever. The three kinds are considered in turn.
As relative words, forms ending -soever and -so are old-fashioned variants of the -ever forms. [2] : 356n, 1074n There are whoso(ever), whomso(ever), whichsoever, whensoever and whatso(ever); and the archaisms whencesoever and whithersoever are still occasionally found.
Ultimately, the English interrogative words (those beginning with wh in addition to the word how), derive from the Proto-Indo-European root kwo- or kwi, [25] the former of which was reflected in Proto-Germanic as χwa- or khwa-, due to Grimm's law. [26]
These underwent further sound changes and spelling changes, notably wh-cluster reductions, resulting in the initial sound being either /w/ (in most dialects) or /h/ (how, who) and the initial spelling being either ⟨wh⟩ or ⟨h⟩ (how). This was the result of two sound changes – /hw/ > /h/ before /uː/ (how, who) and /hw/ > /w/ otherwise – and the spelling change from ⟨hw⟩ to ⟨wh⟩ in Middle English. The unusual pronunciation versus spelling of who is because the vowel was formerly /aː/, and thus it did not undergo the sound change in Old English, but in Middle English (following spelling change) the vowel changed to /uː/ and it followed the same sound change as how before it, but with the Middle English spelling unchanged. [26]
In how (Old English hū, from Proto-Germanic χwō), the w merged into the lave of the word, as it did in Old Frisian hū, hō (Dutch hoe "how"), but it can still be seen in Old Saxon hwō, Old High German hwuo (German wie "how"). In English, the gradual change of voiceless stops into voiceless fricatives (phase 1 of Grimm's law) during the development of Germanic languages is responsible for "wh-" of interrogatives. Although some varieties of American English and various Scottish dialects still preserve the original sound (i.e. [ʍ] rather than [w]), most have only the [w]. [26]
The words who, whom, whose, what and why, can all be considered to come from a single Old English word hwā, reflecting its masculine and feminine nominative (hwā), dative (hwām), genitive (hwæs), neuter nominative and accusative (hwæt), and instrumental (masculine and neuter singular) (hwȳ, later hwī) respectively. [27] Other interrogative words, such as which, how, where, whence, or whither, [28] derive either from compounds (which coming from a compound of hwā [what, who] and līc [like]), [29] or other words from the same root (how deriving from hū). [26]
The pronunciation of English relative words starting with the ⟨wh⟩ digraph involves a phonetic element historically pronounced as /hw/ and now variously realized as /w/ or /ʍ/. [30] : 14 Speakers with the whine-wine merger generally use /w/, resulting in words like which, and why being pronounced with an initial /w/ sound, homophonous with witch, and wye. The /hw/ pronunciation is preserved in conservative speech in the Southern United States, [31] in certain Scottish English varieties, [32] and elsewhere. However, the merged /w/ pronunciation has been identified as having a continuous lineage in everyday spoken Southern English from Old English to the present. [30] : 16 Three factors have been highlighted in enabling this phonetic evolution: spelling, word frequency, and possibly a shift in the sociolinguistic status of the northern pronunciation in some circles in the south during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. [30]
The initial ⟨th⟩ in that represents a voiced dental fricative /ð/, phonologically distinguishing it from other relative words.
Outside of fused relatives, relative words have unstressed pronunciation. The vowel sounds in English relative words vary, with some notable features:
Supplementary relative clauses regularly form a separate prosodic unit, with a pause before the relative phrase, while integrated relatives do not. [33] : 280
There is significant overlap between the English relative words and the English interrogative words, but the relative words that and while are not interrogative words, the interrogative words whether and if are not relative words, and, in Standard English, what and how are mostly excluded from the relative words. [2] : 1053 [lower-alpha 1] Most or all of the interrogative words that are now more or less archaic are also relative words. [2] : 1046
The denotation of whose as an interrogative word is limited to persons, but the relative whose may denote non-persons, as in a book whose cover is missing. [2] : 1049
Fused relatives are easily confused with open interrogatives, and even a careful analysis may conclude that, if taken out of context, a particular sentence can have either of two interpretations. An example in The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language illustrating this ambiguity is What she wrote is completely unclear. If we know what she wrote and are saying that it is hard to understand, then what she wrote is a fused relative; if on the other hand we are saying that the extent of her authorship is unknown, then what she wrote is an open interrogative content clause. [2] : 1070
The preposition while also has other, relative-irrelevant uses: While she showered, I slept (time), While the maths exam was tough, the English exam was easy (contrast), While you're free to complain, doing so won't get you anywhere (concession). [15]
As a relative word, the subordinator that has only the unstressed pronunciation /ðət/. It is also used more generally with subordinate clauses (I know that he's lying) and is usually unstressed, but in some contexts necessarily stressed /ˈðæt/ (That he's lying is obvious). The stressed that that has the plural form those (I'll take that) is a determiner. [15] : 61 [1] : 1046 [lower-alpha 8]
The use in fused relatives of the -ever form should not be confused with its other, non-relative uses:
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