Epicoccum nigrum

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Epicoccum nigrum
Epicoccum nigrum 80352.jpg
E. nigrum growing on Lycoperdon pyriforme
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Phylum:
Ascomycota
Class:
Dothidiomycetes
Order:
Pleosporales
Family:
Didymellaceae
Genus:
Epicoccum
Species:
E. nigrum
Binomial name
Epicoccum nigrum
Link
Synonyms

Epicoccum purpurascensEhrenb.
Epicoccum vulgareCorda
Phoma epicoccinaPunith.
Toruloidea tobaicaSvilv.

Contents

Epicoccum nigrum is a species of fungus in the phylum Ascomycota. A plant pathogen and endophyte, it is a widespread fungus which produces coloured pigments that can be used as antifungal agents against other pathogenic fungi. The fluorescent stain epicocconone is extracted from it.

Growth and morphology

Epicoccum nigrum (1825) is a fungus with no known teleomorph form. [1] It has been classified as a member of the Hyphomycetes, [2] in the Deuteromycota, as well as the Fungi Imperfecti because it is only known to reproduce asexually. Despite that it is not yeast-like, it has been included in the broad, unrelated category of fungi known as black yeasts. [2] The fungus grows felty colonies in bright shades of yellow, orange, and red, often with brown or black throughout. [1] [2] Colonies grow quickly, reaching about 6 cm in diameter in 2 days at room temperature. [1] Mycelia contain both chitin and cellulose. [1]

Epicoccum nigrum forms blastoconidia that are darkly coloured, warted and spherical, reaching 15 to 25 µm in diameter. [1] Conidia grow on a sporodochium, formed by warty and fibrous hyphae. [1] [3] Sporets have been found to contain up to 15 cells. [4] The spores of E. nigrum are actively released depending on temperature, light, and relative humidity conditions. [5] The mechanism of release involves the separation of the conidium from the sporodochium via a double septum. It capitalizes on the spherical shape of the conidia, allowing it to "bounce" off the sporodochium. [6] Conidia then become airborne with movement or wind. [7] Sporulation is induced under Wood's light, or sometimes upon exposure to cold temperatures with a subsequent return to room temperature. [1] Pigment production is also sensitive to light and temperature changes. [8] Ideal growth temperatures range between 23–28 °C (73–82 °F), and ideal growth pH ranges from 5.0 to 6.0. [1] Although E. nigrum will grow in a range of water activity (aw of 0.99 to 0.97), [9] growth is optimized at water vapour saturation. [1]

Epicoccum nigrum produces a variety of biomedically and industrially useful metabolites, including important antifungal agents and pigments, including: flavipin, epicorazines A and B, epirodin, epicocconone, and a variety of carotenoid pigments. [10] [11] Epicoccum nigrum has also been utilized in the biosynthetic manufacture of silver- and gold nanoparticles. [12] [13]

Habitat and ecology

A highly robust and ubiquitous fungus, [14] E. nigrum has an almost global spread, occurring in the Americas, Asia, and Europe. [1] Spores of E. nigrum have been cultured from a variety of environments, predominantly soil (i.e. peat, forest floor, raw humus, compost, tundra, sewage) [1] and sand (e.g., dunes, saline sands). [1] [15] It is a saprophytic fungus, forming pustules (composed of sporodochia and conidia) on dead and dying plants. [4] This species is commonly found growing on cereals and seeds, as well as other crops including corn, beans, potatoes, peas and peaches. [1] [16] It has been found to grow colonies on leaves submersed in water as cold as 0 °C (32 °F), and is considered a facultative marine fungus. [17] It is capable of colonizing algae and marsh grasses. [17] In indoor environments, E. nigrum has been found on paintings and wallpaper, [18] cotton and textiles, [1] [4] in dust, [16] [18] and in air. [1] [16] [19] [20] It is tolerant of changes in water availability, and hyphal growth has been found to resume within an hour of exposure to water. [17]

Biomedical, industrial, and agricultural uses

Epicoccum nigrum has a wide array of medical, industrial, and agricultural applications. It produces a variety of pigmented and non-pigmented antifungal and antibacterial compounds. [11] [21] These antimicrobial compounds are effective against other fungi and bacteria present in soil. [11] Flavipin, and epirodins A and B are pigmented antifungal agents; [10] [11] non-pigmented compounds include epicorazines A and B. [11] Endophytic fungi such as E. nigrum are being explored as alternative sources of antibiotics to treat important resistant infections. [22] Polysaccharide antioxidants are also produced by E. nigrum. [23] Epicocconone is a fluorescent pigment unique to E. nigrum. [24] Epicocconone is valuable in terms of its ability to pigment cells orange, which then fluoresce red without impacting cell structure or function. [24]

Industrially, E. nigrum has a variety of broad applications. It has demonstrated a capacity to biosynthesize nanoparticles from silver and gold, which have applications in chemical, industrial, and medical processes. [12] [13] It has been applied as biological treatment for mechanical oily effluent, reducing the content of hydrogen peroxide, phenols, and chemical oxygen demand in the oily effluent. [25] Epicoccum nigrum pigments have been considered as natural replacements for artificial pigments currently used in food. [26] It produces a variety of pigments, ranging from darker oranges to yellows and greens. [26] These pigments were synthesized by nonpathogenic strains of E. nigrum. [26]

In Brazil, E. nigrum is used to support root growth and control sugarcane pathogens. [27] It is a biocontrol antifungal agent active against brown rot in stone fruit, caused the species Monilinia laxa and Monilinia fructigena . [28] In contrast to these uses for E. nigrum metabolites, there has been an investigation into methods of controlling E. nigrum fungal colonies that have contaminated historic and cultural artifacts. [29] The fungus was found to be quite sensitive to essential oils from plants such as lavender and rosemary. [29] This is important in terms of the preservation of artifacts in humid climates, where fungal growth is an important determinant in the deterioration of stone structures and wood frames. [29]

Epidemiology

Epicoccum nigrum produces the glycoprotein allergen Epi p 1 which binds to IgE, sometimes cross-reacting with other fungal allergens. [16] Cross-reactivity was found to exist with Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata, Cladosporium herbarum, and Penicillium citrinum. [30] Epicoccum nigrum is associated with respiratory fungal allergies, including allergic asthma, rhinitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and allergic fungal sinusitis. [16] [31] Two pediatric cases of hypersensitivity pneumonitis caused by E. nigrum were reported in children living in a damp and mouldy home, with daily exposure to E. nigrum in the shower. [32] The fungus has been found on human skin and in spit samples. [1] It does not typically cause systemic infection, although one case has been reported in an immunocompromised patient. [33]

History and reclassification

Epicoccum nigrum has been treated under a variety of names in the genus Epicoccum. It was first identified in 1815 by botanist Johaan Heinrich Friedrich Link. [34] Today, all previously identified species are considered to be different variants of the species E. nigrum. [4] These include: E. purpurascens, E. diversisporum, E. versicolor, E. vulgare, E. granulatum, E. menispermi, and E. neglectum. [4] [34] More recently, two distinct genotypes for E. nigrum have been identified with the combined use of DNA sequencing, morphology, physiology, and recombination factors. [35] This indicates the existence of cryptic species, and a subsequent call to re-classify E. nigrum into more than one species. [35]

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A conidium, sometimes termed an asexual chlamydospore or chlamydoconidium, is an asexual, non-motile spore of a fungus. The word conidium comes from the Ancient Greek word for dust, κόνις (kónis). They are also called mitospores due to the way they are generated through the cellular process of mitosis. They are produced exogenously. The two new haploid cells are genetically identical to the haploid parent, and can develop into new organisms if conditions are favorable, and serve in biological dispersal.

<i>Setosphaeria rostrata</i> Pathogenic fungus

Setosphaeria rostrata is a heat tolerant fungus with an asexual reproductive form (anamorph) known as Exserohilum rostratum. This fungus is a common plant pathogen, causing leaf spots as well as crown rot and root rot in grasses. It is also found in soils and on textiles in subtropical and tropical regions. Exserohilum rostratum is one of the 35 Exserohilum species implicated uncommonly as opportunistic pathogens of humans where it is an etiologic agent of sinusitis, keratitis, skin lesions and an often fatal meningoencephalitis. Infections caused by this species are most often seen in regions with hot climates like Israel, India and the southern USA.

<i>Acrophialophora fusispora</i> Species of ascomycete fungus found in soil, air and various plants

Acrophialophora fusispora is a poorly studied ascomycete fungus found in soil, air and various plants. A. fusispora is morphologically similar to the genera Paecilomyces and Masonia, but differ in the presence of pigmented conidiophores, verticillate phialides, and frequent sympodial proliferation. Moreover, A. fusispora is distinguished by its pigmented spindle-shaped conidia, covered with spiral bands. The fungus is naturally found in soils of tropical to temperate regions. The fungus has been identified as a plant and animal pathogen, and has recently been recognized as an emerging opportunistic human pathogen. A. fusispora infection in human is rare and has few documented clinical cases, but due to the rarity of the fungus and potential misidentification, the infections may be underdiagnosed. Clinical cases of A. fusispora include cases of keratitis, pulmonary colonization and infection, and cerebral infections. The fungus also has two documented cases of infection in dogs.

Nigrospora sphaerica is an airborne filamentous fungus in the phylum Ascomycota. It is found in soil, air, and plants as a leaf pathogen. It can occur as an endophyte where it produces antiviral and antifungal secondary metabolites. Sporulation of N. sphaerica causes its initial white coloured colonies to rapidly turn black. N. sphaerica is often confused with the closely related species N. oryzae due to their morphological similarities.

Exophiala jeanselmei is a saprotrophic fungus in the family Herpotrichiellaceae. Four varieties have been discovered: Exophiala jeanselmei var. heteromorpha, E. jeanselmei var. lecanii-corni, E. jeanselmei var. jeanselmei, and E. jeanselmei var. castellanii. Other species in the genus Exophiala such as E. dermatitidis and E. spinifera have been reported to have similar annellidic conidiogenesis and may therefore be difficult to differentiate.

<i>Fonsecaea pedrosoi</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Geomyces pannorum</i> Species of fungus

Geomyces pannorum is a yellow-brown filamentous fungus of the phylum Ascomycota commonly found in cold soil environments including the permafrost of the Northern hemisphere. A ubiquitous soil fungus, it is the most common species of the genus Geomyces; which also includes G. vinaceus and G. asperulatus. Geomyces pannorum has been identified as an agent of disfigurement of pigments used in the 15,000-year-old paintings on the walls of the Lascaux caves of France. Strains of Geomyces have been recovered from the Alaskan Fox Permafrost Tunnel and radiocarbon dated to between 14,000 and 30,000 years old.

<i>Trichothecium roseum</i> Species of fungus

Trichothecium roseum is a fungus in the division Ascomycota first reported in 1809. It is characterized by its flat and granular colonies which are initially white and develop to be light pink in color. This fungus reproduces asexually through the formation of conidia with no known sexual state. Trichothecium roseum is distinctive from other species of the genus Trichothecium in its characteristic zigzag patterned chained conidia. It is found in various countries worldwide and can grow in a variety of habitats ranging from leaf litter to fruit crops. Trichothecium roseum produces a wide variety of secondary metabolites including mycotoxins, such as roseotoxins and trichothecenes, which can infect and spoil a variety of fruit crops. It can act as both a secondary and opportunistic pathogen by causing pink rot on various fruits and vegetables and thus has an economical impact on the farming industry. Secondary metabolites of T. roseum, specifically Trichothecinol A, are being investigated as potential anti-metastatic drugs. Several agents including harpin, silicon oxide, and sodium silicate are potential inhibitors of T. roseum growth on fruit crops. Trichothecium roseum is mainly a plant pathogen and has yet to show a significant impact on human health.

<i>Cladosporium cladosporioides</i> Species of fungus

Cladosporium cladosporioides is a darkly pigmented mold that occurs world-wide on a wide range of materials both outdoors and indoors. It is one of the most common fungi in outdoor air where its spores are important in seasonal allergic disease. While this species rarely causes invasive disease in animals, it is an important agent of plant disease, attacking both the leaves and fruits of many plants. This species produces asexual spores in delicate, branched chains that break apart readily and drift in the air. It is able to grow under low water conditions and at very low temperatures.

<i>Aspergillus clavatus</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus clavatus is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus with conidia dimensions 3–4.5 x 2.5–4.5 μm. It is found in soil and animal manure. The fungus was first described scientifically in 1834 by the French mycologist John Baptiste Henri Joseph Desmazières.

<i>Rhinocladiella mackenziei</i> Species of fungus

Rhinocladiella mackenziei is a deeply pigmented mold that is a common cause of human cerebral phaeohyphomycosis. Rhinocladiella mackenziei was believed to be endemic solely to the Middle East, due to the first cases of infection being limited to the region. However, cases of R. mackenziei infection are increasingly reported from regions outside the Middle East. This pathogen is unique in that the majority of cases have been reported from immunologically normal people.

<i>Cladophialophora carrionii</i> Species of fungus

Cladophialophora carrionii is a melanized fungus in the genus Cladophialophora that is associated with decaying plant material like cacti and wood. It is one of the most frequent species of Cladophialophora implicated in human disease. Cladophialophora carrionii is a causative agent of chromoblastomycosis, a subcutaneous infection that occurs in sub-tropical areas such as Madagascar, Australia and northwestern Venezuela. Transmission occurs through traumatic implantation of plant material colonized by C. carrionii, mainly infecting rural workers. When C. carrionii infects its host, it transforms from a mycelial state to a muriform state to better tolerate the extreme conditions in the host's body.

<i>Cladosporium sphaerospermum</i> Species of fungus

Cladosporium sphaerospermum is a radiotrophic fungus belonging to the genus Cladosporium and was described in 1886 by Albert Julius Otto Penzig from the decaying leaves and branches of Citrus. It is a dematiaceous (darkly-pigmented) fungus characterized by slow growth and largely asexual reproduction. Cladosporium sphaerospermum consists of a complex of poorly morphologically differentiated, "cryptic" species that share many physiological and ecological attributes. In older literature, all of these sibling species were classified as C. sphaerospermum despite their unique nature. Accordingly, there is confusion in older literature reports on the physiological and habitat regularities of C. sphaerospermum in the strict sense. This fungus is most phylogenetically similar to C. fusiforme. According to modern phylogenetic analyses, the previously synonymized species, Cladosporium langeroni, is a distinct species.

<i>Phialophora verrucosa</i> Species of fungus

Phialophora verrucosa is a pathogenic, dematiaceous fungus that is a common cause of chromoblastomycosis. It has also been reported to cause subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis and mycetoma in very rare cases. In the natural environment, it can be found in rotting wood, soil, wasp nests, and plant debris. P. verrucosa is sometimes referred to as Phialophora americana, a closely related environmental species which, along with P. verrucosa, is also categorized in the P. carrionii clade.

Curvularia pallescens is a soil fungus, that commonly grows on crops found in tropical regions. The conidia of the fungus are distinguishable from those of related species due to their lack of curvature. C. pallescens has been reported to cause infection in plants, and in immunocompetent individuals. This species is the anamorph of Cochliobolus pallescens.

Sarocladium kiliense is a saprobic fungus that is occasionally encountered as a opportunistic pathogen of humans, particularly immunocompromised and individuals. The fungus is frequently found in soil and has been linked with skin and systemic infections. This species is also known to cause disease in the green alga, Cladophora glomerata as well as various fruit and vegetable crops grown in warmer climates.

Curvularia geniculata is a fast-growing anamorphic fungus in the division Ascomycota, most commonly found in soil, especially in areas of warmer climates. The fungus is a pathogen, mainly causing plant and animal infections, and rarely causing human infections. C. geniculata is characterized by its curved conidia, which has a dark brown centre and pale tapered tips, and produces anti-fungal compounds called Curvularides A-E.

Oidiodendron cereale is a species of ascomycetes fungi in the order Helotiales. This fungus is found globally in temperate climates where average summer temperatures are below 25 °C, but there have been scattered reports from tropical and subtropical environments. It is predominantly found in soil, but little is known regarding their ecological roles in nature. However, an enzymatic study from Agriculture Canada showed that O. cereale can break down a variety of plant, fungal, and animal based substrates found in soil, which may have beneficial effects for plants. On rare occasions, this fungus is found on human skin and hair. There has been one reported case of O. cereale infection in 1969, causing Neurodermitis Nuchae.

Epicoccum sorghinum is an ascomycete fungus with known plant pathogenicity to sugarcane and rice, causing ring spot disease and leaf spot disease. This fungus is primarily known for its production of tenuazonic acid, which leads to complications with growth and causes the symptoms of leaf spot disease. Tenuazonic acid not only affects plant growth, but has recently been proven to impact human health due to its prevalence in food and beverages. It is widely dispersed, affecting multiple hosts in different countries. Although not a serious threat, Epicoccum sorghinum has been known to influence the sorghum grain-mold complex in ways which reduce crop yields, seed viability, and kernel weight. As a result of continuous phylogenetic and morphological discoveries relevant to Epicoccum sorghinum, this fungus has undergone a number of name changes.

References

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  3. ↑ Mims, C.W.; Richardson, E.A. (October 2005). "Ultrastructure of sporodochium and conidium development in the anamorphic fungus". Canadian Journal of Botany. 83 (10): 1354–1363. doi:10.1139/b05-137.
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  5. ↑ Meredith, Donald S. (1966). "Diurnal periodicity and violent liberation of conidia in epicoccum". Phytopathology. 56: 988.
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  8. ↑ Gribanovski-Sassu, Olga; Foppen, F.H. (September 1968). "Light and temperature effect on Epicoccum nigrum". Phytochemistry. 7 (9): 1605–1612. Bibcode:1968PChem...7.1605G. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)88613-6.
  9. ↑ ALDRED, DAVID; PENN, JULIA; MAGAN, NARESH (February 2005). "Water availability and metabolomic profiles of Epicoccum nigrum and Sarophorum palmicola grown in solid substrate fermentation systems". Mycologist. 19 (1): 18–23. doi:10.1017/S0269915X05001035.
  10. 1 2 Bamford, P.C.; Norris, G.L.F.; Ward, G. (September 1961). "Flavipin production by Epicoccum spp". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 44 (3): 354–356. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(61)80028-4.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Brown, Averil E.; Finlay, Ruth; Ward, J.S. (January 1987). "Antifungal compounds produced by Epicoccum purpurascens against soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 19 (6): 657–664. doi:10.1016/0038-0717(87)90044-7.
  12. 1 2 Qian, Yongqing; Yu, Huimei; He, Dan; Yang, Hui; Wang, Wanting; Wan, Xue; Wang, Li (6 March 2013). "Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by the endophytic fungus Epicoccum nigrum and their activity against pathogenic fungi". Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering. 36 (11): 1613–1619. doi:10.1007/s00449-013-0937-z. PMID   23463299. S2CID   19159298.
  13. 1 2 Sheikhloo, Zeinab; Salouti, Mojtaba; Katiraee, Farzad (15 September 2011). "Biological Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles by Fungus Epicoccum nigrum". Journal of Cluster Science. 22 (4): 661–665. doi:10.1007/s10876-011-0412-4. S2CID   97716088.
  14. ↑ Ahumada-Rudolph, Ramón; Cajas-Madriaga, Daniel; Rudolph, Anny; Reinoso, Rodrigo; Torres, Cristian; Silva, Mario; Becerra, José (August 2014). "Variation of sterols and fatty acids as an adaptive response to changes in temperature, salinity and pH of a marine fungus Epicoccum nigrum isolated from the Patagonian Fjords". Revista de Biología Marina y Oceanografía. 49 (2): 293–305. doi: 10.4067/S0718-19572014000200009 .
  15. ↑ Debrecen, edited by Mahendra Rai, University of (2010). Progress in mycology. Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN   978-90-481-3712-1.{{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Miller, edited by Brian Flannigan, Robert A. Samson, J. David (2011). Microorganisms in home and indoor work environments : diversity, health impacts, investigation and control (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN   978-1-4200-9334-6.{{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. 1 2 3 Cole, Edited by Garry; Kendrick, Edited by Bryce (1981). Biology of conidial fungi. New York [u.a.]: Acad. Press. ISBN   978-0-12-179501-6.{{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)
  18. 1 2 Singh, Jagjit, ed. (1994). Building Mycology Management of Decay and Health in Buildings (1st ed.). Hoboken: Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISBN   978-0-203-97473-5.
  19. ↑ PUSZ, Wojciech; PLĄSKOWSKA, Elzbieta; YILDIRIM, İsmet; WEBER, Ryszard (2015). "Fungi occurring on the plants of the genus Amaranthus L." Turkish Journal of Botany. 39: 147–161. doi: 10.3906/bot-1403-106 .
  20. ↑ Wilman, Karolina; Stępień, Łukasz; Fabiańska, Izabela; Kachlicki, Piotr (29 January 2014). "Plant-Pathogenic Fungi in Seeds of Different Pea Cultivars in Poland". Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. 65 (3): 329–338. doi: 10.2478/10004-1254-65-2014-2480 . PMID   25205690.
  21. ↑ Gribanovski-Sassu, Olga; Foppen, Fredrik H. (January 1967). "The carotenoids of the fungus Epicoccum nigrum link". Phytochemistry. 6 (6): 907–909. Bibcode:1967PChem...6..907G. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)86041-0.
  22. ↑ Radić, Nataša; Štrukelj, Borut (November 2012). "Endophytic fungi—The treasure chest of antibacterial substances". Phytomedicine. 19 (14): 1270–1284. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2012.09.007. PMID   23079233.
  23. ↑ Sun, Hai-Hong; Mao, Wen-Jun; Jiao, Jie-Ying; Xu, Jia-Chao; Li, Hong-Yan; Chen, Yin; Qi, Xiao-Hui; Chen, Yan-Li; Xu, Jian; Zhao, Chun-Qi; Hou, Yu-Jiao; Yang, Yu-Pin (29 January 2011). "Structural Characterization of Extracellular Polysaccharides Produced by the Marine Fungus Epicoccum nigrum JJY-40 and Their Antioxidant Activities". Marine Biotechnology. 13 (5): 1048–1055. doi:10.1007/s10126-011-9368-5. PMID   21279405. S2CID   5103926.
  24. 1 2 Bell, Phillip J. L.; Karuso, Peterq (2003). "Epicocconone, A Novel Fluorescent Compound from the Fungus Epicoccum nigrum". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 125 (31): 9304–9305. doi:10.1021/ja035496+. PMID   12889954.
  25. ↑ Queissada, Daniel Delgado; Silva, Flávio Teixeira da; Penido, Juliana Sundfeld; Siqueira, Carolina Dell'Aquila; Paiva, Tereza Cristina Brazil de (2013). "Epicoccum nigrum and Cladosporium sp. for the treatment of oily effluent in an air-lift reactor". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 44 (2): 607–612. doi:10.1590/S1517-83822013000200041. PMC   3833166 . PMID   24294260.
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  27. ↑ Fávaro, Léia Cecilia de Lima; Sebastianes, Fernanda Luiza de Souza; Araújo, Welington Luiz; Liles, Mark R. (4 June 2012). "Epicoccum nigrum P16, a Sugarcane Endophyte, Produces Antifungal Compounds and Induces Root Growth". PLOS ONE. 7 (6): e36826. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...736826F. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036826 . PMC   3366970 . PMID   22675473.
  28. ↑ De Cal, A.; Larena, I.; Liñán, M.; Torres, R.; Lamarca, N.; Usall, J.; Domenichini, P.; Bellini, A.; de Eribe, X.O.; Melgarejo, P. (February 2009). "Population dynamics of a biocontrol agent against brown rot in stone fruit". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 106 (2): 592–605. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2008.04030.x . PMID   19200324.
  29. 1 2 3 Stupar, M.; Grbić, M. Lj.; Džamić, A.; Unković, N.; Ristić, M.; Jelikić, A.; Vukojević, J. (July 2014). "Antifungal activity of selected essential oils and biocide benzalkonium chloride against the fungi isolated from cultural heritage objects". South African Journal of Botany. 93: 118–124. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2014.03.016 .
  30. ↑ Bisht, Vandana; Singh, Bhanu Pratap; Arora, Naveen; Gaur, Shailendra Nath; Sridhara, Susheela (September 2002). "Antigenic and allergenic cross-reactivity of Epicoccum nigrum with other fungi". Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 89 (3): 285–291. doi:10.1016/S1081-1206(10)61956-4. PMID   12269649.
  31. ↑ Kurup, Viswanath P; Shen, Horng-Der; Banerjee, Banani (July 2000). "Respiratory fungal allergy". Microbes and Infection. 2 (9): 1101–1110. doi:10.1016/S1286-4579(00)01264-8. PMID   10967290.
  32. ↑ Hogan, Mary Beth (1 September 1996). "Basement Shower Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis Secondary to <italic>Epicoccum nigrum</italic>". Chest. 110 (3): 854–856. doi:10.1378/chest.110.3.854. PMID   8797443.
  33. ↑ Suraiya, S.; Azira, N. (July 2010). "PP-067 Intramuscular Epicoccum nigrum infection in an immunocompromised patient: A case report". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 14: S45–S46. doi: 10.1016/S1201-9712(10)60135-X .
  34. 1 2 "Epicoccum nigrum Link 1816". Species Fungorum.
  35. 1 2 Fávaro, Léia Cecilia de Lima; de Melo, Fernando Lucas; Aguilar-Vildoso, Carlos Ivan; Araújo, Welington Luiz; Litvintseva, Anastasia P. (11 August 2011). "Polyphasic Analysis of Intraspecific Diversity in Epicoccum nigrum Warrants Reclassification into Separate Species". PLOS ONE. 6 (8): e14828. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...614828F. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014828 . PMC   3154903 . PMID   21853017.
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