Ethereum Classic

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Ethereum Classic
Etc network logo black.svg
Ethereum Classic
Original author(s) Vitalik Buterin, Gavin Wood
Developer(s) Open-source software development
Initial release30 July 2015;9 years ago (2015-07-30)
Stable release Spiral / 4 February 2024;9 months ago (2024-02-04)
Development statusActive
Software usedEVM 61 bytecode
Funding Open Source Software
Written in C++, Go, Python, Rust, Scala
Operating system Cross-platform
Platform x86-64, ARM
Size Archive: 771GB / Snap Sync: 72GB (2023-Oct-03)
Available in Global
Type Open Source Software
License Open-source licenses
As ofNovember 2024
Average performance 13.914 Seconds
Active users 31,690 Daily Transactions
Total users 101,819,308 Addresses
Active hosts 4990 Nodes
Total hosts 5003 Nodes
Website ethereumclassic.org

Ethereum Classic is a blockchain-based distributed computing platform that offers smart contract (scripting) functionality. [1] It is open source and supports a modified version of Nakamoto consensus via transaction-based state transitions executed on a public Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM).

Contents

Ethereum Classic maintains the original, unaltered history of the Ethereum network. [2] The Ethereum project's mainnet was initially released via Frontier on 30 July 2015. However, due to a hack of a third-party project, The DAO, the Ethereum Foundation created a new version of the Ethereum mainnet on 20 July 2016 with an irregular state change implemented that erased the DAO theft from the Ethereum blockchain history. [2] The Ethereum Foundation applied their trademark to the new, altered version of the Ethereum blockchain. [2] The older, unaltered version of Ethereum was renamed and continued on as Ethereum Classic. [2]

Ethereum Classic's native Ether token is a cryptocurrency traded on digital currency exchanges under the currency code ETC. [3] Ether is created as a reward to network nodes for a process known as "mining", which validates computations performed on Ethereum Classic's EVM. Implemented on 11 December 2017, the current ETC monetary policy seeks the same goals as bitcoin: being mechanical, algorithmic, and capped. ETC can be exchanged for network transaction fees or other assets, commodities, currencies, products, and services.

Ethereum Classic provides a decentralized Turing-complete virtual machine, the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM), which can execute scripts using an international network of public nodes. The virtual machine's instruction set is Turing-complete, in contrast to others like Bitcoin Script. Gas, an internal transaction pricing mechanism, is used to mitigate spam and allocate resources on the network. [4]

Milestones

Frontier

Several codenamed prototypes of the Ethereum platform were developed by the Ethereum Foundation, as part of their proof-of-concept series, prior to the official launch of the Frontier network. Ethereum Classic followed this codebase after the DAO incident.

DateBlockMilestone name
2015-07-300Frontier
2015-07-3015M20 Era 1
2015-09-08200,000Ice Age
2016-03-151,150,000Homestead
2016-10-242,500,000Gas Reprice
2017-01-133,000,000Die Hard
2017-12-115,000,000Gotham
2017-12-115,000,0015M20 Era 2
2018-05-295,900,000Defuse Difficulty Bomb
2019-09-128,772,000Atlantis
2020-01-119,573,000Agharta
2020-03-1710,000,0015M20 Era 3
2020-06-0110,500,839Phoenix
2020-11-2811,700,000Thanos
2021-07-2313,189,133Magneto
2022-02-1214,525,000Mystique
2022-04-2515,000,0015M20 Era 4
2022-09-1515,950,000Largest PoW EVM
2024-02-0419,250,000Spiral
2024-05-3020,000,0015M20 Era 5
TBD25,000,0015M20 Era 6

The DAO bailout

On 20 July 2016, as a result of the exploitation of a flaw in The DAO project's smart contract software, and subsequent theft of $50 million worth of Ether, [5] the Ethereum network split into two separate blockchains – the altered history was named Ethereum (ETH) and the unaltered history was named Ethereum Classic (ETC). [2]

Security vulnerabilities disclosed

On 28 May 2016, a paper was released detailing security vulnerabilities with the DAO that could allow Ether to be stolen. [7] On 9 June 2016, Peter Vessenes publicly disclosed the existence of a critical security vulnerability overlooked in many Solidity contracts, a recursive call bug. On 12 June 2016, Stephan Tual publicly claimed that the DAO funds were safe despite the newly-discovered critical security flaw.

Carbon vote

On 15 July 2016, a short notice on-chain vote was held on the DAO hard fork. [8] Of the 82,054,716 ETH in existence, only 4,542,416 voted, for a total voter turn out of 5.5% of the total supply on 16 July 2016; 3,964,516 ETH (87%) voted in favor, 1/4 of which came from a single address, and 577,899 ETH (13%) opposed the DAO fork. [8] The expedited process of the carbon vote drew criticism from opponents of the DAO fork. Proponents of the fork were quick to market the vote as an effective consensus mechanism, pushing forward with the DAO fork four days later. [9]

Block 1,920,000

The first Ethereum Classic block that was not included in the forked Ethereum chain was block number 1,920,000, which was generated by Ethereum Classic miners on 20 July 2016. [8] [10]

Defuse Difficulty Bomb

A mechanism called the "Difficulty Bomb" was designed to push the Ethereum chain from proof-of-work consensus mechanism to proof-of-stake in the future by exponentially increasing the difficulty of mining. This Difficulty Bomb was added to the network on block 200,000 in an upgrade named "Ice Age". While Ethereum Classic participants debated the merits of the Difficulty Bomb, a network upgrade called "Die Hard" at block 3,000,000 delayed the effects of the mechanism. Once the network participants came to consensus on the issue, Ethereum Classic upgraded its network on block 5,900,000 to permanently defuse the Difficulty Bomb. This abandoned a future with proof-of-stake and committed the network to the proof-of-work consensus mechanism.

Protocol parity

In an attempt to modernize the Ethereum Classic protocol, several protocol upgrades were scheduled to activate features that the Ethereum network already enabled over the past years. Atlantis, activated in September 2019, enabled the Agharta upgrade, which included the outstanding Byzantium changes. Agharta was followed by the incorporation of the Constantinople patches through the January 2020 upgrade. Finally, with the Phoenix upgrade, Ethereum Classic achieved protocol parity with Ethereum, allowing for fully cross-compatible applications between the two networks.

Mining algorithm

After a series of 51% attacks on the Ethereum Classic network in 2020, [11] a change to the underlying Ethash mining algorithm was considered by the community to prevent being a minority proof-of-work chain in the Ethash mining algorithm where Ethereum is dominating the hashrate. After evaluating various options such as Monero's RandomX or the standardized SHA-3-256, it was eventually decided to double the Ethash epoch duration from 30,000 to 60,000 in order to reduce the DAG size and prevent Ethash miners to easily switch to Ethereum Classic. This modified Ethash is also referred to as ETChash or Thanos upgrade.

Characteristics

Ether (ETC)
Ethereum Classic ETC Logo.png
ETC logo
Denominations
PluralEther(s)
SymbolΞ
CodeETC
NicknameEther Classic, Eth Classic, Classic
Previous namesEthereum, ETH, Eth
Precision18
Subunits
 10−9Gwei
 10−18Wei
Development
Original author(s) Vitalik Buterin, Gavin Wood
White paper ethereum whitepaper
Implementation(s) EVM 61
Initial releaseFrontier / 30 July 2015;9 years ago (2015-07-30)
Latest release Spiral / 4 February 2024;9 months ago (2024-02-04)
Code repository github.com/ethereumclassic
Development statusActive
Written in C++, Go, Python, Rust, Scala
Operating system Cross-platform
Developer(s) Open-source software development
Source model Open-source model
License Open-source licenses
Ledger
Ledger start30 July 2015;9 years ago (2015-07-30)
Split height#1,920,000 / 20 July 2016;8 years ago (2016-07-20)
Split fromEthereum (ETH)
Split ratio1:1
Timestamping scheme Proof-of-Work - Ethash
Hash function Keccak
Issuance scheduleBlock reward reduction of 20% every 5,000,000 blocks
Block reward2.048 Ξ + Uncle rewards
Block time13.914 secs
Block explorer Blockscout
Circulating supply149,572,836 (2024-11-16)
Supply limit210,700,000
Valuation
Exchange rate 1 ETC = $27.35 (2024-11-16)
Website
Website ethereumclassic.org

    As with other cryptocurrencies, the validity of each ether is provided by a blockchain, which is a continuously growing list of records, called "blocks", which are linked and secured using cryptography. [12] [13] By design, the blockchain is inherently resistant to modification of the data. It is an open, distributed ledger that records transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way. [14] Unlike bitcoin, Ethereum Classic operates using accounts and balances in a manner called state transitions. This does not rely upon unspent transaction outputs (UTXOs). The state denotes the current balances of all accounts and extra data. The state is not stored on the blockchain, it is stored in a separate Merkle Patricia tree. A cryptocurrency wallet stores the public and private "keys" or "addresses" which can be used to receive or spend Ether. These can be generated through BIP 39 style mnemonics for a BIP 32 "HD wallet". In the Ethereum tech stack, this is unnecessary as it does not operate in a UTXO scheme. With the private key, it is possible to write in the blockchain, effectively making an ether transaction.

    To send Ether to an account, the Keccak-256 hash of the public key of that account is needed. Ether accounts are pseudonymous in that they are not linked to individual persons, but rather to one or more specific addresses.

    Ether

    ETC is a fundamental token for operation of Ethereum Classic, which thereby provides a public distributed ledger for transactions. It is used to pay for Gas, a unit of computation used in transactions and other state transitions. Within the context of Ethereum Classic it might be called ether, but it should not be confused with ETH, which is also called ether.

    It is listed under the currency code ETC and traded on cryptocurrency exchanges, and the Greek uppercase Xi character (Ξ) is generally used for its currency symbol. It is also used to pay for transaction fees and computational services on the Ethereum Classic network. [15]

    Addresses

    Ethereum Classic addresses are composed of the prefix "0x", a common identifier for hexadecimal, concatenated with the rightmost 20 bytes of the Keccak-256 hash (big endian) of the ECDSA public key (the curve used is the so-called secp256k1, the same as bitcoin). In hexadecimal, two digits represent a byte, meaning addresses contain 40 hexadecimal digits. An example of an Ethereum Classic address is 0xb794f5ea0ba39494ce839613fffba74279579268. Contract addresses are in the same format, however, they are determined by sender and creation transaction nonce. [16] User accounts are indistinguishable from contract accounts given only an address for each and no blockchain data. Any valid Keccak-256 hash put into the described format is valid, even if it does not correspond to an account with a private key or a contract. This is unlike bitcoin, which uses base58check to ensure that addresses are properly typed.

    Monetary policy

    On 11 December 2017, the total supply of Ether on Ethereum Classic was hard capped at ETC 210,700,000 via the Gotham hard fork upgrade. This added a bitcoin-inspired deflationary emission schedule that is documented in Ethereum Classic Improvement Proposal (ECIP) 1017. The emission schedule, also known as "5M20", reduces the block reward by 20% every 5,000,000 blocks. Socially, this block reward reduction event has taken the moniker of "the fifthening."

    ETA DateDate5M20 eraBlockBlock rewardTotal era emissionTotal emission
    -30 July 2015Era 115 Ξ25,000,000 Ξ25,000,000 Ξ
    December 201711 December 2017Era 25,000,0014 Ξ20,000,000 Ξ45,000,000 Ξ
    March 202017 March 2020Era 310,000,0013.2 Ξ16,000,000 Ξ61,000,000 Ξ
    April 202225 April 2022Era 415,000,0012.56 Ξ12,800,000 Ξ73,000,000 Ξ
    May 202430 May 2024Era 520,000,0012.048 Ξ10,240,000 Ξ83,240,000 Ξ
    August 2026-Era 625,000,0011.6384 Ξ8,192,000 Ξ91,480,000 Ξ
    ~2028-Era 730,000,0011.31072 Ξ6,553,600 Ξ98,033,000 Ξ
    ~2030-Era 835,000,0011.048576 Ξ5,242,880 Ξ103,275,880 Ξ

    Ethereum Classic Improvement Proposal

    The Ethereum Classic Improvement Proposal (ECIP) process enables engineers and computer scientists to propose modifications, upgrades, or fixes. Any software developer who is a GitHub user is allowed to make contributions to the ECIP process. [17] There is a number of ECIP types, each listed in the table below. [18]

    ECIP Types
    TypeExplanation
    Standard TrackAny change that affects most or all Ethereum Classic implementations
    CoreImprovements requiring a consensus fork
    NetworkingImprovements to networking protocol specifications
    Interfaceimprovements around client API/RPC specifications and standards and certain language-level standards
    ECBPApplication-level standards and conventions, including contract standards
    MetaProposes a change to, or an event in, a process and often requires community consensus
    InformationalDiscussing a design flaw in Ethereum Classic or offering general guidelines or information to the Ethereum Classic community, without suggesting the addition of a new feature

    Code is law

    The people who continued with Ethereum Classic advocate for blockchain immutability, and the concept that "code is law" [19] against the pro-fork side (Ethereum) which largely argued for extra-protocol intentionality, decentralized decision-making, and conflict resolution. [20] Code is law refers to the idea that the code is above all else including law from outside forces such as a government. The law is written into the code, therefore, anything the code allows is legal. [21]

    Attacks

    The DAO fork replay attacks

    On 20 July 2016, due to reliance on the same clients, the DAO fork created a replay attack where a transaction was broadcast on both the ETC and ETH networks. On 13 January 2017, the Ethereum Classic network was updated to resolve transaction replay attacks. The networks are now officially operating separately. [8]

    RHG sells stolen ETC

    On 10 August 2016, the ETH proponent Robin Hood Group transferred 2.9 million stolen ETC to Poloniex in an attempt to sell ETC for ETH on the advice of Bitly SA; 14% was successfully converted to ETH and other currencies, 86% was frozen by Poloniex. [8] On 30 August 2016, Poloniex returned the ETC funds to the RHG. They set up a refund contract on the ETC network.

    Classic Ether Wallet website attack

    On 29 June 2017, the Ethereum Classic Twitter account made a public statement indicating reason to believe that the website for Classic Ether Wallet had been compromised. The Ethereum Classic Twitter account confirmed the details released via Threatpost. The Ethereum Classic team worked with Cloudflare to place a warning on the compromised domain warning users of the phishing attack. [22] [ better source needed ]

    51% double spend attacks

    ETC has experienced multiple 51% double-spending attacks throughout its history. These attacks exploit the decentralized nature of the network by amassing more than 50% of its mining power, [23] enabling attackers to manipulate transactions and double-spend digital assets. The first significant attack occurred in January 2019, when Ethereum Classic was subject to double-spending attacks and an estimated $1.1 million worth of ETC was double-spent. [24] [25] In response, the Ethereum Classic team initiated several network upgrades, including the adoption of a modified version of the Proof of Work (PoW) consensus algorithm called "ECIP-1049 Keccak256." [26] Despite these efforts, additional 51% attacks were carried out in August and October of 2020, [27] [11] with estimated losses of $5.6 million and $1.68 million, respectively. [28]

    Related Research Articles

    A smart contract is a computer program or a transaction protocol that is intended to automatically execute, control or document events and actions according to the terms of a contract or an agreement. The objectives of smart contracts are the reduction of need for trusted intermediators, arbitration costs, and fraud losses, as well as the reduction of malicious and accidental exceptions. Smart contracts are commonly associated with cryptocurrencies, and the smart contracts introduced by Ethereum are generally considered a fundamental building block for decentralized finance (DeFi) and non-fungible token (NFT) applications.

    Solidity is a programming language for implementing smart contracts on various blockchain platforms, most notably, Ethereum. Solidity is licensed under GNU General Public License v3.0. Solidity was designed by Gavin Wood and developed by Christian Reitwiessner, Alex Beregszaszi, and several former Ethereum core contributors. Programs in Solidity run on Ethereum Virtual Machine or on compatible virtual machines.

    Double-spending is the unauthorized production and spending of money, either digital or conventional. It represents a monetary design problem: a good money is verifiably scarce, and where a unit of value can be spent more than once, the monetary property of scarcity is challenged. As with counterfeit money, such double-spending leads to inflation by creating a new amount of copied currency that did not previously exist. Like all increasingly abundant resources, this devalues the currency relative to other monetary units or goods and diminishes user trust as well as the circulation and retention of the currency.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Cryptocurrency</span> Digital currency not reliant on a central authority

    A cryptocurrency, crypto-currency, or crypto is a digital currency designed to work through a computer network that is not reliant on any central authority, such as a government or bank, to uphold or maintain it.

    Litecoin is a decentralized peer-to-peer cryptocurrency and open-source software project released under the MIT/X11 license. Inspired by Bitcoin, Litecoin was among the earliest altcoins, starting in October 2011. In technical details, the Litecoin main chain shares a slightly modified Bitcoin codebase. The practical effects of those codebase differences are lower transaction fees, faster transaction confirmations, and faster mining difficulty retargeting. Due to its underlying similarities to Bitcoin, Litecoin has historically been referred to as the "silver to Bitcoin's gold." In 2022, Litecoin added optional privacy features via soft fork through the MWEB upgrade.

    Proof-of-stake (PoS) protocols are a class of consensus mechanisms for blockchains that work by selecting validators in proportion to their quantity of holdings in the associated cryptocurrency. This is done to avoid the computational cost of proof-of-work (POW) schemes. The first functioning use of PoS for cryptocurrency was Peercoin in 2012, although the scheme, on the surface, still resembled a POW.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Vitalik Buterin</span> Canadian programmer (born 1994)

    Vitaly Dmitrievich Buterin, better known as Vitalik Buterin, is a Canadian computer programmer and co-founder of Ethereum. Buterin became involved with cryptocurrency early in its inception, co-founding Bitcoin Magazine in 2011 and Dark Wallet in 2013 together with Amir Taaki and Cody Wilson In 2015, Buterin deployed the Ethereum blockchain with Gavin Wood, Charles Hoskinson, Anthony Di Iorio, and Joseph Lubin.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethereum</span> Open-source blockchain computing platform

    Ethereum is a decentralized blockchain with smart contract functionality. Ether is the native cryptocurrency of the platform. Among cryptocurrencies, ether is second only to bitcoin in market capitalization. It is open-source software.

    A decentralized autonomous organization (DAO), sometimes called a decentralized autonomous corporation (DAC), is an organization managed in whole or in part by decentralized computer program, with voting and finances handled through a blockchain. In general terms, DAOs are member-owned communities without centralized leadership. The precise legal status of this type of business organization is unclear.

    A blockchain is a distributed ledger with growing lists of records (blocks) that are securely linked together via cryptographic hashes. Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data. Since each block contains information about the previous block, they effectively form a chain, with each additional block linking to the ones before it. Consequently, blockchain transactions are irreversible in that, once they are recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without altering all subsequent blocks.

    Monero is a cryptocurrency which uses a blockchain with privacy-enhancing technologies to obfuscate transactions to achieve anonymity and fungibility. Observers cannot decipher addresses trading Monero, transaction amounts, address balances, or transaction histories.

    Hyperledger is an umbrella project of open source blockchains and related tools that the Linux Foundation started in December 2015. IBM, Intel, and SAP Ariba have contributed to support the collaborative development of blockchain-based distributed ledgers. It was renamed the Hyperledger Foundation in October 2021.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">The DAO</span> Early decentralized business based on the Ethereum blockchain

    The DAO was a digital decentralized autonomous organization and a form of investor-directed venture capital fund. After launching in April 2016 via a token sale, it became one of the largest crowdfunding campaigns in history, but it ceased activity after much of its funds were taken in a hack in June 2016.

    A decentralised application is an application that can operate autonomously, typically through the use of smart contracts, that run on a decentralized computing, blockchain or other distributed ledger system. Like traditional applications, DApps provide some function or utility to its users. However, unlike traditional applications, DApps operate without human intervention and are not owned by any one entity, rather DApps distribute tokens that represent ownership. These tokens are distributed according to a programmed algorithm to the users of the system, diluting ownership and control of the DApp. Without any one entity controlling the system, the application is therefore decentralised.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Bitcoin Cash</span> Cryptocurrency that is a fork of bitcoin

    Bitcoin Cash is a cryptocurrency that is a fork of bitcoin. Launched in 2017, Bitcoin Cash is considered an altcoin or spin-off of bitcoin. In November 2018, Bitcoin Cash further split into two separate cryptocurrencies: Bitcoin Cash (BCH) and Bitcoin Satoshi Vision (BSV).

    Segregated Witness, or SegWit, is the name used for an implemented soft fork change in the transaction format of Bitcoin.

    A cryptocurrency wallet is a device, physical medium, program or an online service which stores the public and/or private keys for cryptocurrency transactions. In addition to this basic function of storing the keys, a cryptocurrency wallet more often offers the functionality of encrypting and/or signing information. Signing can for example result in executing a smart contract, a cryptocurrency transaction, identification, or legally signing a 'document'.

    <span class="mw-page-title-main">Gavin Wood</span> British computer programmer and entrepreneur

    Gavin James Wood is an English computer scientist, a co-founder of Ethereum, and creator of Polkadot and Kusama.

    In blockchain, a fork is defined variously as:

    References

    1. ↑ Vigna, Paul (28 October 2015). "BitBeat: Microsoft to Offer Ethereum-Based Services on Azure". The Wall Street Journal (Blog). News Corp. Archived from the original on 22 February 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2016.
    2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Vigna, Paul (1 August 2016). "The Great Digital-Currency Debate: 'New' Ethereum Vs. Ethereum 'Classic'". The Wall Street Journal (Blog). News Corp. Archived from the original on 26 March 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
    3. ↑ Russel, Jon (11 June 2018). "Coinbase will add Ethereum Classic to its exchange 'in the coming months'". TechCrunch.com. TechCrunch. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
    4. ↑ Tapscott, Don (2016). Blockchain revolution : how the technology behind bitcoin is changing money, business, and the world. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Portfolio/Penguin. ISBN   978-0670069972.
    5. ↑ Waters, Richard (18 June 2016). "'Ether' brought to earth by theft of $50m in cryptocurrency". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2018.
    6. ↑ Leising, Matthew (13 June 2017). "Ether thief remains mystery year after $55 million heist". www.bloomberg.com. Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
    7. ↑ Popper, Nathaniel (27 May 2016). "Paper Points Up Flaws in Venture Fund Based on Virtual Money". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
    8. 1 2 3 4 5 Andreas M. Antonopoulos, Gavin Wood (2018): "Ethereum timeline". In Mastering Ethereum: Building Smart Contracts and DApps, page 329. O'Reilly Media; 424 pages. ISBN   9781491971918
    9. ↑ De Jesus, Cecille (19 July 2016). "The DAO Heist Undone: 97% of ETH Holders Vote for the Hard Fork". Futurism, LLC. Archived from the original on 7 August 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
    10. ↑ Matthew Leising (2017-06-13): "The Ether Thief Archived 26 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine ". Online article, Bloomberg. Accessed on 2019-02-16.
    11. 1 2 "Ethereum Classic faced '51 percent attack'" (in Turkish). Bloomberg HT. 31 August 2020. Archived from the original on 12 September 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
    12. ↑ "Blockchains: The great chain of being sure about things". The Economist . 31 October 2015. Archived from the original on 3 July 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2016. The technology behind bitcoin lets people who do not know or trust each other build a dependable ledger. This has implications far beyond the crypto currency.
    13. ↑ Narayanan, Arvind; Bonneau, Joseph; Felten, Edward; Miller, Andrew; Goldfeder, Steven (2016). Bitcoin and Cryptocurrency Technologies: a Comprehensive Introduction. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-17169-2.
    14. ↑ Iansiti, Marco; Lakhani, Karim R. (January 2017). "The Truth About Blockchain". Harvard Business Review . Harvard University. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017. The technology at the heart of bitcoin and other virtual currencies, blockchain is an open, distributed ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way.
    15. ↑ Popper, Nathaniel (27 March 2016). "Ethereum, a Virtual Currency, Enables Transactions That Rival Bitcoin's". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 24 July 2016. Retrieved 2 September 2016.
    16. ↑ Wood, Gavin (3 February 2018). "ETHEREUM: A SECURE DECENTRALISED GENERALISED TRANSACTION LEDGER (EIP-150)". yellowpaper.io. Archived from the original on 3 February 2018. Retrieved 3 February 2018.
    17. ↑ McIntyre, Donald (20 December 2022). "How to Contribute to ETC: The Improvement Proposal Process (ECIP)". ethereumclassic.org. Archived from the original on 20 December 2022. Retrieved 20 December 2022.
    18. ↑ "ECIPs". ethereumclassic. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 5 April 2023.
    19. ↑ Pearson, Jordan (27 July 2016). "The Ethereum Hard Fork Spawned a Shaky Rebellion". Motherboard. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
    20. ↑ Primavera De Filippi (11 July 2016). "A $50M Hack Tests the Values of Communities Run by Code". Motherboard. Archived from the original on 5 April 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
    21. ↑ Quinn, John. "'Code Is Law' During The Age Of Blockchain". Forbess. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 5 April 2023.
    22. ↑ Russon, Mary-Ann (30 June 2017). "Classic Ether Wallet has been hacked – do not use it to send currency". International Business Times. Archived from the original on 8 January 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
    23. ↑ Frankenfield, Jake. "51% Attack: Definition, Who Is at Risk, Example, and Cost." Investopedia. Investopedia, 03 Jan. 2023. Web. 4 Apr. 2023.
    24. ↑ Kharif, Olga (7 January 2019). "Ethereum Classic Movements Halted by Coinbase on Signs of Attack". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 6 November 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
    25. ↑ Goodin, Dan (7 January 2019). "Almost $500,000 in Ethereum Classic coin stolen by forking its blockchain". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 12 February 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
    26. ↑ Bob Summerwill, Alexander Tsankov. "Change the ETC Proof of Work Algorithm to KECCAK256." Ethereum Classic Improvement Proposals. 03 Nov. 2022. Web. 4 Apr. 2023.
    27. ↑ Berbedj, Loana (17 August 2020). "Ethereum Classic cryptocurrency victim of two computer attacks in one week". Les Echos (in French). Archived from the original on 6 February 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
    28. ↑ Howarth, Dan. "Hackers Launch Third 51% Attack on Ethereum Classic This Month." Decrypt. Decrypt, 18 Nov. 2020. Web. 4 Apr. 2023.
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