Galdan's campaigns and invasions

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Galdan's campaigns and invasions
Part of Timeline of the Oirats
Date1671 [1] –1697 [2]
Location
1671: Irtysh
1676: Somewhere in Kokonoor
1678–1680: Tarim Basin (Altishahr)
1681–1687:Tengeri, Semirechiye, South Kazakhstan
1687–1697: Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Hami
Result1671: Galdan solidifies his rule
1676: Dzungar victory, Khoshut khanate subdued
1678–1680: Dzungar victory, Annexation of the Tarim Basin or Altishahr
1681–1687: Dzungar victory, Subjugation of the Black kyrgyz and the Kazakh Khanate
1687–1697: Qing victory, Galdan initially annexes Outer Mongolia, and defeats forces at Inner Mongolia, But later is defeated by Enkh Amgalan and looses Outer Mongolia and Hami
Territorial
changes		 Annexation of the Tarim Basin or Altishahr, Initially annexes Outer Mongolia but later annexed by Qing Dynasty
Belligerents
Oirat Mongol Dalkha Banner.png Dzungar Khanate Oirat Mongol Dalkha Banner.png Chechen taiyji & Zotov Batur's faction
Standard of Gushri khan.png Khoshut Khanate(1676)
Yarkent Khanate (1678–1680)
Kazakh Khanate(1681–1687)
Northern Yuan Dynasty(1687-1967)
Qing Dynasty(1690-1967)
Commanders and leaders
Galdan Boshugtu Khan
5th Dalai Lama
Tsewang Rabtan(1681–1687)
Queen Anu   † 		1671:
Chechen taiyji
Zotov Batur
1676:
Ochirtu Khan  (POW) [3]
1678–1680:Ismail Khan (Moghul khan)  (POW) [4] [5]
1681–1687:
Tauke Khan
Abdulmambet (POW) [6] [7]
Enkh Amgalan Khaan(1690-1967)
Chakhundorji(1687-1967)
Tsewang Rabtan(Defected)

Galdan's campaigns and invasions is a series of military conflicts such as wars, raids and campaigns by the Dzungar Khanate's khong taiyji, Galdan boshughtu against various states and nations in the 17th century. [8] [9]

Contents

Background

Galdan was first initially sent to Lhasa to be educated as a lama under the fourth Panchen Lama and the 5th Dalai Lama at Tashilhunpo Monastery in 1656 studying for 10 years [10] on Buddhist canons, philosophy, astronomy, astrology and basics of medicine and pharmacology. [11]

He also had a close relations with his brother, Sengge in a war of succession, assisting him with Ochirtu Khan of the Khoshut, to rise to the throne of the Khanate, as well the titles of Khan and khong tayiji against their half brothers of Chechen taiyiji and Zotov batur. [12] With this Sengge's rule over Dzungaria was solidified in 1661. [13] However the half brothers did not give up on the succession, With Chechen Tayiji murdering Sengge in a family coup in 1670. When Galdan's mother Amin-Dara arrived to Lhasa to inform Galdan of Sengge's death, Galdan immediately renounced his status as a lama and quickly returned to the Irtysh Valley to avenge him. [14]

Galdan's solidification of Rule

Upon entering the Irtysh valley in 1671 -- Galdan wasted no time avenging Sengge for his violent death, he defeated Chechen taiyiji and Zotov batur. For this was granted the title of khong taiyji by the fifth Dalai Lama. [15]

Later Galdan took his widow Anu-Dara, granddaughter of Ochirtu, as his bride. Later another family feud occurred between Galdan and Ochirtu, with him supporting Galdan's uncle fearing his rising Popularity. In 1676, Galdan defeated Ochirtu, and took him prisoner and he later died in captivity at Borotala in 1680. [16] This led to Galdan securing his leadership and rule over the Oirats, as well the Khoshut khanate being subdued. [17] The following year, the Dalai Lama bestowed on him the highest title of "Boshughtu Khan", or meaning the "Divine Khan".

Conquest of Altishahr

On the Chagatayid Yarkand Khanate, a civil war broke out between the Afaq Khoja (White Mountain) and the Ishaqi Khoja (Black Mountain) factions. In 1678, Ismail Khan drives out to the Aq Taghliq Khoja of Afaq Khoja, seeking assistance from the 5th Dalai Lama, who in turn writes a letter and sends it to Galdan to intervene on his behalf.

Later at 1679, Galdan had moved with his cavalry to Hami and Turpan, either using sieges or directly capturing it. [18] [19] The following year, He mobilized his 120 thousand cavalrymen [20] from Aksu and Uch-Turpan to Kashghar, Yarkand and Khotan. [21] He proceeded to imprison Ismail prisoner or kill his family to Ili. [22] [23]

After Galdan had occupied Yarkand, he did not hand over power to Afaq Khoja, who had rendered outstanding service to him, but appointed one of the members of the old Chaghatay family, Abdu’l Rash ̄ıd Khan II, son of Babak Khan of Turfan, as khan and made him his vassal. He then led his troops back to the north of the Tian Shan attacking the Kazakh Khanate. [24]

Second Kazakh-Dzungar War

After Tauke Khan ascended to the throne of the Kazakh Khanate, he began to strengthen the nation, which caused concern for Galdan. In response, Galdan attempted to weaken the influence of the Kazakhs and encourage them to adopt Lamaism. To this end, he sent envoys to the Kazakh rulers with an offer to unite and recognize Lamaism, but the Kazakhs refused. This led to conflict between the two sides, as the Kazakhs did not want to renounce their traditional beliefs. [25]

In 1681, the invasion by Galdan Boshugtu Khan started with Galdan's forces of about 25,000 to 50,000 men sweeping through the Tengeri ranges, which were strategic strongholds for the Kazakhs. This move secured his southern flank and soon invaded the territories of Semirechye and South Kazakhstan; the Kazakh ruler Tauke Khan was defeated on the Ili River valley, at Orqaq. [26] And he also took Tauke's grandson, Abdulmambet as a prisoner of war. [27]

From 1683, the Dzungars seized Sayram, Tashkent, Shymkent, and Taraz. The success was so profound that contemporary sources describe it as one of the darkest periods for the Kazakhs. The Dzungar occupation was reportedly brutal, leading to widespread loss of life, enslavement, and the destruction of livelihoods. After his victories, Galdan did not directly administer these cities in the modern sense. Instead, he established Dzungar hegemony, forcing the Kazakh Khanate into a state of vassalage. [28] After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana Valley. From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took Taraz, and his main force forced the Kazakhs to migrate westwards. [29] Later in 1686 He successfully took Andijan [30] and in the following year (1687), He attempted to siege Turkistan but abandoned it after a war broke out between the Dzungar Khanate and the Khalkhas against the Khalkha Prince, Chakhundorji

With this, the Kazakhs, particularly the Senior and Middle Jüzes, were forced to pay an annual tribute to the Dzungar Khanate. This often took the form of goods, livestock, and even human hostages to ensure compliance and The Kazakh Khanate remained politically fractured. While Tauke Khan is remembered as a last great unifier, his authority was severely weakened after the defeats. [31]

Last Oirat-Khalkha war and the First Dzungar-Qing War

Last Oirat Khalkha War

In the 1680s, the Qing Empire succeeded in persuading some rulers of Khalkha Mongolia to accept allegiance to the Manchu Emperor. This state of affairs worried the Dzungar ruler Galdan Boshugtu Khan, who saw unification as the key to Mongol independence. In 1687, He retreated from Kazakhstan and invaded the Khalkhas with 30 thousand men, [32] Galdan proceeded to sack western Khalkha, and defeated Chakhundorji at the Battle of Tamir. [33] Later they fought the khalkhas at the Erdene zuu, and defeated the Khalkhas, damaging the monastery in the process. In the ninth month of 1688, finding themselves with the remnants of their troops and people at the borders of the Qing Empire, Tushetu Khan and Bogd Gegeen I appealed to the Qing authorities to accept them as subjects along with all their people. Some Mongol rulers followed their example over the next year or two, frightened by the devastation wrought by Galdan; some of the Khalkhas fled to Köke Nuur to the Khoshuts, while others went to Russian Empire territory. [34] [35]

In early 1690, the Qing Empire sent a dignitary called Wenda, to Khalkha with the mission of secretly reconnoitering Galdan's situation. From his information, as well as from interrogating the Tibetan ambassador, Talai Kyanbu, at the Jiayuguan outpost, it became known that Galdan was in Kobdo, gathering troops for a campaign against Khalkha. [36] However, his nephew, Tsewang Rabtan, and Galdan's ex-wife, Atu Khatun, who had sided with Tsewang Rabtan, had gradually resettled in Galdan's old lands. Many of Galdan's subjects were fleeing to Tsewang Rabtan. Galdan's army, although numbering several thousand warriors, had very few horses. The scouts, confirming the Tibetan's information, reported that Galdan had two men riding one horse, and those who lacked weapons were cutting down trees to arm themselves.

Galdan's Inner Mongolia campaign

The Qing authorities concluded that Galdan had decided to march into the southeastern regions of Khalkha; to retain his men, he was forced to allow them to plunder the Khalkhas. The Manchu emperor, the Kangxi Emperor, began preparing for war, primarily recruiting the Mongols under his command. In May 1690, it was decided that the Chahars would lead the vanguard, followed by the Eight Banners army, with military commanders ordered to increase the number of cannons in their units. The Khalkhas fighting on the Manchu side were permitted to order weapons from China. [37]

Since Galdan, clearly counting on Russian assistance, was moving down the Kerulen River, the Russian representative in Beijing, Loshaninov, was informed that if Russia provided assistance to Galdan, it would be considered a violation of the Treaty of Nerchinsk. [38] The Qing ambassador, Songgotu, also declared the same in Nerchinsk. Therefore, when Ayuka-Darkhan-Khashka arrived with a letter from Galdan to the local voivode, Skripitsyn, he replied that he had no right to provide military personnel to assist Galdan's Oirats.

Fearing Galdan's invasion of Manchuria, the Qing authorities urgently prepared its western borders for defense, simultaneously deciding to launch a counterattack. After Tushetu Khan and Zanabazar (the Bogd Gegeen) submitted a request for their lands to be incorporated into the Qing Empire, the Manchu authorities considered the Khalkha to be their own, and Galdan's presence there constituted a violation of their borders. Galdan, having lost his ancestral home as a result of Tsewang Rabdan's rebellion, had nowhere to go. Lacking the means to maintain an army, he could not abandon plunder. Having secured the submission of the Khalkha khans to the Qing Empire and concluded peace with Russia, the Kangxi Emperor firmly resolved to eliminate Galdan and personally led the campaign.

The war resulted from a Dzungar attack on the Northern Yuan dynasty based in Outer Mongolia, who were heavily defeated in 1688. Their rulers and twenty thousand refugees fled south to the Qing dynasty, which feared the growing power of the Dzungar state. Motivated by the opportunity to gain control over Mongolia and by the threat posed to them by a strong, unified Mongol state such as the Oirats threatened to form, the Qing sent their army north to subdue the Dzungars in 1690.

In the sixth month of 1690, two Qing armies set out on a campaign against Galdan. One marched from Manchuria toward the Kherlen River, the other from the south, from the area of the cities of Kalgan and Hohhot, toward the Tuul River. [39] The campaign included Manchu-Chinese troops, as well as detachments of southern Mongols and Khalkha Mongols.

At that time, Galdan and his troops were camped on the Ulz River in northeastern Khalkha. The Qing commander Arani's corps attacked his camp on July 21, 1690. The Oirats, using firearms, repelled the Qing troops, then attacked them from the flanks and defeated Arani. [40] Arani retreated, and Galdan moved south to the Shara Mören (Shara River) region, where he plundered the nomadic camps of the Ujumchin banner.

Qing scouts attacked a Dzungar party north of the Great Wall. However, this proved to be the main Dzungar army, which destroyed the Qing detachment easily. [41] A large Qing army under Prince Fuquan advanced North into Inner Mongolia, hoping to trap and crush the mobile Dzungar army. However, they were constrained by bad weather and difficult terrain. It took some Qing troops twelve days to cross the Gobi Desert, and the horses were left exhausted. Running low on supplies, the Qing finally confronted the Dzungars at Ulan Butung in September 1690. Although outnumbered 5 to 1, the Dzungars formed a camel wall, beat back a pair of artillery-supported Qing assaults, and escaped into the hills having won with strategy. The Qing commander claimed victory, but his failure to completely destroy the Dzungar forces led to his dismissal and early retirement. [42] Galdan was left in control of Mongolia from the Selenga River in the north to Khalkhyn Gol in the south. [43]

Pause

A pause in the conflict ensued. The Khalkha rulers declared themselves Qing vassals at Dolon Nor (the site of Shangdu, the pleasure palace of the Yuan Emperors) in 1691, a politically decisive step that officially ended the last remnants of the Yuan dynasty. It also allowed the Qing to assume the mantle of the Genghisid khans, merging the Khalkha forces into the Qing army. [44] The Kangxi Emperor had now become determined to "exterminate" Galdan. Negotiations between the two sides bore little fruit. The Dzungars cast about for allies, making overtures to the Russians and various Mongol princes, but were rejected. [45] Throughout the autumn of 1692, Galdan attempted to win over one of the rulers of Khalkha, but to no avail. In 1691–1692, Oirat embassies led by Zorikta-Khashka, Sunit, and others visited Irkutsk, Nerchinsk, and Tobolsk, while an embassy led by Achin-Khashka even visited Moscow . However, these embassies yielded no practical results for Galdan.

In the summer of 1693, the Manchu Emperor again offered Galdan Qing allegiance. By the end of 1693, people began defecting from Galdan to the Qing Empire. In the spring of 1694, Taiji Babai abandoned him . In the summer of 1695, word leaked to China that Galdan was planning to break through to Tibet from Jiayuguan through the southern regions of Hami along the Kundelen-gol and Egyn river valleys. The Qing authorities immediately raised troops in Gansu Province to intercept him and completely destroy his army. [46]

Defeat and Death

In 1696, Kangxi prepared a major expedition against Galdan, organizing 1,333 supply carts, each carrying 6 shi of grain. Three armies advanced north: Fiyanggu commanded 30,000 troops (reinforced by 10,000), Kangxi personally led 32,000 men with 235 camel-mounted cannons, and a third army of 10,000 remained to the east and did not participate in the main campaign. The Dzungar army, weakened by plague and heavily outnumbered, confronted Fiyanggu's forces at the Battle of Jao Modo in May 1696. Despite their mobility, Galdan's troops were decisively defeated, suffering heavy losses from Qing artillery and musket fire, [47] eventually breaking. Most of the Dzungar army was killed, captured, or scattered, leaving only 40–50 warriors. Galdan himself escaped thanks to a counterattack led by his wife, Queen Anu, who was killed during the battle. [48] After the battle, Qing forces did not pursue a full-scale invasion but established blockades to contain Galdan in western Khalkha. His men, lacking yurts and livestock, faced severe hardship over the winter. In November 1696, Kangxi ordered the treasury to ransom Oirats captured or enslaved during the conflict and sent letters urging Galdan to submit to Qing rule, promising reunification with their families. Qing troops also entered Hami on the same year. [49] By the winter of 1696–1697, Galdan was completely blockaded: Qing troops blocked his passage from the east and south, while Tsewang Rabdan's forces held the west. Galdan died of plague in 1697, [50] leaving only a few loyal followers. [51]

References

[[Category:1680s conflicts]

  1. ↑ Adle, Chahryar (2003), History of Civilizations of Central Asia 5 p. 147
  2. ↑ Adle, Chahryar (2003), History of Civilizations of Central Asia 5 p. 148
  3. ↑ BCP,1967, pp. 60–3; Miyawaki,1997, p. 67
  4. ↑ Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, By C. Adle, Irfan Habib
  5. ↑ Page 191,192, Studied by Dr Abdul Rauf Mughal
  6. ↑ T.I. Sultanov, particularly "Kazakhstan: Letopis' Trekh Tysyacheletii".
  7. ↑ Khodarkovsky, Mikhail. Russia's Steppe Frontier. Indiana University Press, 2002, p. 140.
  8. ↑ Smith 1997, p. 116
  9. ↑ Adle, Chahryar (2003), History of Civilizations of Central Asia 5
  10. ↑ Adle, Chahryar (2003), History of Civilizations of Central Asia 5 p. 148
  11. ↑ Bawden, C.R. (2013). Modern History Mongolia Hb (revised ed.). Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 978-1136188220.
  12. ↑ Smith 1997, p. 116
  13. ↑ Adle, Chahryar (2003), History of Civilizations of Central Asia 5 p. 147
  14. ↑ Smith 1997, p. 116
  15. ↑ Miyawaki,1997, pp. 66–7; for Tibetan sources see Miyawaki1993;1995;1997;1999. p. 67.148
  16. ↑ BCP,1967, pp. 60–3; Miyawaki,1997, p. 67
  17. ↑ Miyawaki,1997, p. 67.
  18. ↑ Okada,1979a;1979b.
  19. ↑ Adle, Chahryar (2003), History of Civilizations of Central Asia 5 p. 149.
  20. ↑ Adle, Chahryar (2003), History of Civilizations of Central Asia 5 p. 193.
  21. ↑ The date for Galdan’s expedition is variously given, ranging from 1678 to 1683. The year 1680 seems tohave been accepted by most authorities, though Zlatkin,1964, suggests 1679.
  22. ↑ Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, By C. Adle, Irfan Habib
  23. ↑ Page 191,192, Studied by Dr Abdul Rauf Mughal
  24. ↑ Adle, Chahryar (2003), History of Civilizations of Central Asia 5 p. 194.
  25. ↑ Moiseev, 1991 & pp. 51–52.
  26. ↑ T.I. Sultanov, particularly "Kazakhstan: Letopis' Trekh Tysyacheletii".
  27. ↑ Khodarkovsky, Mikhail. Russia's Steppe Frontier. Indiana University Press, 2002, p. 140.
  28. ↑ Khodarkovsky, Mikhail. Russia's Steppe Frontier. Indiana University Press, 2002, p. 141.
  29. ↑ Michael Khodarkovsky - Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads, 1600-1771, p.211
  30. ↑ Adle, Chahryar (2003), History of Civilizations of Central Asia 5 p. 147.
  31. ↑ Khodarkovsky, Mikhail. Russia's Steppe Frontier. Indiana University Press, 2002, p. 141.
  32. ↑ History of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Vadiam Mikhailovich Masson, pg. 148
  33. ↑ Haines, R Spencer (2015). "Myth, Misconception, and Motive for the Zunghar Intervention in Khalkha Mongolia in the 17th Century". Paper Presented at the Third Open Conference on Mongolian Studies. The Australian National University.
  34. ↑ Haines, R Spencer (2015). "Myth, Misconception, and Motive for the Zunghar Intervention in Khalkha Mongolia in the 17th Century". Paper Presented at the Third Open Conference on Mongolian Studies. The Australian National University.
  35. ↑ Perdue, Peter C. (2005). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press. p. 172.
  36. ↑ Perdue, Peter C. (2005). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press. p. 174.
  37. ↑ Perdue, Peter C. (2005). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press. p. 175.
  38. ↑ Perdue, Peter C. (2005). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press. p. 176.
  39. ↑ Perdue, Peter C. (2005). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press. p. 177.
  40. ↑ Perdue, Peter C. (2005). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press. p. 178.
  41. ↑ Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West:The Qing Conquest of Central Asia, p. 153
  42. ↑ The Cambridge History of China, Willard J. Peterson, pg.154
  43. ↑ Historical Dictionary of Mongolia, Alan Sanders, pg. 288, Scarecrow Press
  44. ↑ J. Millward, Eurasian Crossroads:A history of Xinjiang, pg. 91
  45. ↑ Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West:The Qing Conquest of Central Asia, p. 177-180
  46. ↑ "Джунгаро-Цинская война". Russian Wikipedia (in Russian). Retrieved October 6, 2025.
  47. ↑ Wars in the Age of Louis Xiv, 1650-1715, C.J.Nolan, p.g. 224
  48. ↑ Powers, John; Templeman, David (2012). Historical Dictionary of Tibet. Scarecrow Press. p. 245. ISBN 978-0810879843.
  49. ↑ Adle, Chahryar (2003), History of Civilizations of Central Asia 5 p. 200.
  50. ↑ The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet:Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing, 44,45, Yincong Dai
  51. ↑ Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West:The Qing Conquest of Central Asia, p.148- 189
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