Genetic studies show that Russians are overall closely related to other Northeastern and Eastern European populations, such as Finns, Poles, Belarusians, Ukrainians as well as Latvians, Estonians and Lithuanians, but also display significant genetic heterogenity, evidence for multiple genetic ancestries and admixture events. The northern group of Russians cluster close to surrounding Finno-Ugric speaking peoples. [1]
The most common Y-DNA haplogroups among Russians (n=1228) are: [2]
Haplogroup R1a has been associated with Balto-Slavic speakers and makes up roughly half of all Y-DNA chromosomes, except in Northern Russia, where it declines to 20–30%. Haplogroup R1b is found in a mosaic pattern, and generally in low frequencies. Haplogroup N (N3 and N2) has been associated with Altaic and Uralic speakers, N3 decreases from North (>35%) to South (<10%), while N2 is present among Northern Russians (3–14%), but absent elsewhere. Haplogroup I1a decreases from South (~15%) to North (~5%) and follows an "out-of-Balkan" trend, while I1b is commonly found in Scandinavia and correlates "with ancient routes from Scandinavia to the Volga Basin" among Russians. Other haplogroups, such as E3b and J2 "exhibit spotty frequencies in Russians". [2]
The mitochondrial gene pool of Russians are represented by mtDNA types belonging to typical West Eurasian groups. East Eurasian admixture was shown to be minimal and existed in low frequencies in the form of Haplogroup M. [3] [4] The same studies indicate Eurasian haplogroups present at a frequency of 97.8% and 98.5% among a sample of 325 and 201 Russians respectively. [3] [4]
Autosomally, European Russians can be subdivided into at least two groups: central–southern and northern Russians. Russians from Tver, Murom, and Kursk were found to be more similar to populations from central-eastern Europe, especially other Eastern Slavs, but distinct from Russians in the Mezen and the Arkhangelsk region, who display high identity-by-descent sharing with the Finnish people. [6] A significant number of Russian samples also displayed increased affinities to Southern European populations, while Russians from the Caucasus region were placed along a cline between Southern Europe and the Middle East. [7]
While modern European populations derive most of their ancestry from three major sources: Western hunter-gatherers, Early European Farmers, and Western Steppe Herders (Yamnaya), this three-way model is insufficient to explain the ethnogenesis of northeastern Europeans such as Saami, Russians, Mordovians, Chuvash, Estonians, Hungarians, and Finns. They carry an additional Nganasan-related genetic component and increased allele sharing with modern East Asians. The Yamnaya-like contribution is estimated at around 50%, the Neolithic Farmers contribution at around 26%, the WHG contribution at around 12%, and the Siberian/Nganasan-like contribution at around 11%. [8] [9] [1] A study by Wang et al. argued that the levels of "Siberian" ancestry among Europeans may be linked to the diffusion of paternal haplogroup N-M231. [10]
Another QpAdm run by Peltola et al. 2023 estimated each 46%, 47%, and 46% Yamnaya-like contributions; 22%, 33%, and 36% Neolithic Farmers contributions; 14%, 13%, and 14% WHG-like contributions; and 18%, 7%, and 4% Siberian/Nganasan-like contributions for Northern, Central, and Southern Russians respectively. In comparison, Ukrainians have 43% Yamnaya-like, 38% Neolithic Farmers, 14% WHG-like, and 5% Siberian/Nganasan-like ancestries. [1]
Historical Russians formed primarily from early Slavic peoples, who came into contact with Uralic-speaking groups. Subsequently historical Russians expanded further eastwards, coming into contact with various other groups of Central Asia and Siberia. Later geneflow between minority groups and Russians contributed to the genetic diversity across Russia. [11] [12] [1]
The early Middle Ages in turn saw a shift in diet and the arrival of a Slavic-like genetic component, which tightly mirrors insights from historical linguistics and written records. The medieval genetic diversity was further bolstered by long-distance migrants with genetic affinity to Central Asia and Iran, underlining the region's long-distance connections. Admittedly, the dynamics we have discovered may be very local: the genetic structure in present-day Russians suggests that the details of the Slavic admixture process may have varied by area.9,11 [qpAdm results in supplementary data S3.]
This model, however, does not fit well for present-day populations from north-eastern Europe such as Saami, Russians, Mordovians, Chuvash, Estonians, Hungarians, and Finns: they carry additional ancestry seen as increased allele sharing with modern East Asian populations1,3,9,10. [qpAdm results in supplementary data 4.]
Therefore, Siberian admixtures into Northeastern Europe likely began prior to 6.6 kya, coinciding with the expansion of Y-Chromosome haplogroup N1c1 among Siberians and Northeastern Europeans (7.1–4.9 kya). Since haplogroup N likely originated in Asia (Shi et al. 2013) and currently achieves its highest frequency among Siberian populations, its presence among Eastern Europeans likely reflects ancient gene flows from Siberia into Northeastern Europe.
Finnish (FIN) and Russians inherited significantly more genetic material (>12%) from ancestral EAS
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| Genetic history by region | |
| Population genetics by group |
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