can be categorized into three separate but related groups: Ainu, Ryukyuan and Mainland (Yamato).
are closely related to clusters found in Northeastern Asia[7][8] with the Ainu group being most similar to the Ryukyuan group,[9][10] the Ryukyuan group being most similar to the Yamato group,[11] and the Yamato group being most similar to Koreans[12][13][14][15] among other East Asian people.
Glacier cover in Japan at the height of the last glaciation about 20,000 years ago.
A common origin of Japanese has been proposed by a number of scholars since Arai Hakuseki first brought up the theory and Fujii Sadamoto, a pioneer of modern archaeology in Japan, also treated the issue in 1781.[16] But after the end of World War II, Kotondo Hasebe and Hisashi Suzuki claimed that the origin of Japanese people was not the newcomers in the Yayoi period (300 BCE – 300 CE) but the people in the Jōmon period.[17] However, Kazuro Hanihara announced a new racial admixture theory in 1984.[17] Hanihara also announced the theory "dual structure model" in English in 1991.[18] According to Hanihara, modern Japanese lineages began with Jōmon people, who moved into the Japanese archipelago during the Paleolithic. Hanihara believed that there was a second wave of immigrants, from Northeast Asia to Japan from the Yayoi period. Following a population expansion in Neolithic times, these newcomers then found their way to the Japanese archipelago sometime during the Yayoi period. As a result, miscegenation was common in the island regions of Kyūshū, Shikoku, and Honshū, but did not prevail in the outlying islands of Okinawa and Hokkaidō, and the Ryukyuan and Ainu people continued to dominate there. Mark J. Hudson claimed that the main ethnic image of Japanese people was biologically and linguistically formed from 400 BCE to 1,200 CE.[17] Currently, the most well-regarded theory is that present-day Japanese are descendants of both the indigenous Jōmon people and the immigrant Yayoi people.
Main migration routes into Japan during the Jōmon and Yayoi period.
On the other hand, a study published in October 2009 by the National Museum of Nature and Scienceet al. concluded that the Minatogawa Man, who was found in Okinawa and was regarded as evidence that the Jōmon people were not a homogenous group and that these southern Jōmon came to Japan via a southern route and had a slender and more neo-Mongoloid face unlike the Northern Jōmon.[19] Hiroto Takamiya of the Sapporo University suggested that the people of Kyushu immigrated to Okinawa between the 10th and 12th centuries CE.[20][21] Regardless, both Northern and Southern Jōmon were craniofacially different from modern Mainland Japanese and had European-like features[22] and a 'well-defined and less flat upper face' respectively.[23] But they still had hair and teeth morphology that was characteristic of East Asian peoples, especially Northern Jōmon.[22]
A 2011 study by Sean Lee and Toshikazu Hasegawa[24] reported that a common origin of Japonic languages had originated around 2,182 years before present.[25]
A 2015 study revealed that modern Japanese possess 2.2% West Eurasian ancestry, which likely originated from interactions with Silk Road traders around 1700 years ago.[26]
Phylogenetic tree of Ainu, Ryukyuan, Mainland Japanese, and other Asian ethnic groups. The Ainu and the Ryukyuan were clustered with 100% bootstrap probability, followed by the Mainland Japanese. The three populations in the Japanese archipelago clustered with the Korean with 100% bootstrap probability.
The modern Japanese cluster is said to be the most similar with the Korean one; in a haplotype-based study, the Japanese cluster was found to share 87–94% of its genetic components with the Korean cluster, compared with a Han Chinese result of only 0–8%, a distinct contrast. Moreover, the genetic affinity to the Korean cluster was particularly strong among a cluster hailing from Shimane specifically and Honshu more broadly, but relatively less pronounced, albeit still overwhelming, in the Kyushu clusters. In any case, however, the study clarifies that "the estimate of ancestry profile cannot provide the definitive history of original migration, unless it will be further verified against historical evidence."[29] Some studies suggest a genetic connection between Koreans and Southeast Asian populations. A 2017 study by Ulsan University analyzed a 7,700-year-old skull in Korea, finding evidence of genetic links to ancient populations, including those from Southeast Asia, such as Vietnamese people. This research highlights the complex migration patterns in East Asia’s prehistory.[30] Similarly, Japanese research conducted in 1999 proposed that the Yayoi people, an ancient population contributing to modern Japanese ancestry, may have migrated from the Yangtze River basin in southern China. This was supported by DNA analyses showing similarities between Yayoi remains in southwestern Japan and early Han Dynasty remains from China’s Jiangsu Province.[31] However, other studies suggest that modern Koreans share closer genetic ties with Central Asian and Northern East Asian populations. A mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed a genetic affinity between Koreans and Mongolians, indicating a shared Central Asian ancestry. Additionally, genetic research suggests that while Koreans share some common ancestry with other East Asian populations, their genetic ties with the Chinese are relatively more distant.[32] Genome-wide studies further demonstrate that Koreans are genetically closest to Yamato Japanese and Manchu populations, reflecting shared ancestry and historical interactions, while genetic connections between Koreans and Southeast Asians are more limited.[33][34]
A population genomic PCA graph, showing the substructure of Eastern Asian populations, including analyzed Japanese Jōmon samples. Japanese people's cluster (squares) is almost indistinguishable to the Korean people's cluster (circles), while the Jōmon samples are shifted towards the Siberian cluster in a more distinct position. (2020)
The origins of the Jōmon and Yayoi people have often been a subject of dispute, and a recent Japanese publisher[36] has divided the potential routes of the people living on the Japanese archipelago as follows:
Aboriginals that have been living in Japan for more than 10,000 years. (Without geographic distinction, which means, the group of people living in islands from Hokkaido to Okinawa may all be considered to be Aboriginals in this case.)
Immigrants from the northern route (北方ルート in Japanese) including the people from the Korean peninsula, mainland China and Sakhalin Island.
A study in 2017 estimates the Jōmon ancestry in people from Tokyo at approximately 12%.[42]
In 2018, an independent research conducted by director Kenichi Shinoda (篠田 謙一) and his team at National Museum of Nature and Science was broadcast on NHK Science ZERO and it was discovered that the modern day Japanese are genetically extremely close to the modern day Koreans.[43] A genome study (Takahashi et al. 2019) shows that modern Japanese (Yamato) do not have much Jōmon ancestry at all. Nuclear genome analysis of Jōmon samples and modern Japanese samples show strong differences.[44] Various studies estimate the proportion of Jōmon ancestry in Japanese people at around 9-13%, with the remainder derived from later migrations from Asia including the Yayoi people.[42][45][4]
Recent studies have revealed that Jomon people are considerably genetically different from any other population, including modern-day Japanese.
—Takahashi et al. 2019, (Adachi et al., 2011; Adachi and Nara, 2018)
Ancestry profile of Japanese genetic clusters illustrating their genetic similarities to five mainland Asian populations.
Gyaneshwer Chaubey and George van Driem (2020) suggest that the Jōmon people were rather heterogeneous, and that there was also a pre-Yayoi migration during the Jōmon period, which may be linked to the arrival of the Japonic languages, meaning that Japonic is one of the Jōmon languages. This migration is suggested to have happened before 6000BC, thus before the actual Yayoi migration.[47]
According to Alexander Vovin, the Yayoi were present on the central and southern parts of Korea before they were displaced and assimilated by arriving proto-Koreans.[52][53] A similar view was raised by Whitman (2012), further noting that the Yayoi are not closely related to the proto-Koreanic speakers and that Koreanic arrived later from Manchuria to Korea at around 300 BC and coexisted with the Japonic speakers. Both had influence on each other and a later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families.[54]
Jared Diamond, the author of Guns, Germs, and Steel, suggested that the Yayoi period in Japan was initiated by immigrants from the Korean peninsula. Citing research findings, he stated that Yayoi Japan likely received millions of immigrants from Korea. These immigrants, during the Yayoi transition, are believed to have overwhelmed the genetic contribution of the Jōmon people, whose population was estimated to be around 75,000 at that time.[55]
Recent full genome analyses in 2020 by Boer et al. 2020 and Yang et al. 2020, reveals some further information regarding the origin of the Jōmon peoples. They were found to have largely formed from a Paleolithic Siberian population and an East Asian related population.[16][56] Gakuhari et al. (2020) stated that the Jōmon had strong genetic affinities with Taiwanese aborigines.[57]
According to a March 2021 study on genetic distance measurements from a large scale genetic study titled 'Genomic insights into the formation of human populations in East Asia', the modern "Japanese populations can be modelled as deriving from Korean (91%) and Jōmon (9%)."[58]
Tripartite ancestry theory
A September 2021 study published in the journal Science Advances proposed that the people of Japan bore genetic signatures from three ancient populations rather than just two as previously thought.[5]
Proposed tripartite styled genomic transitions in parallel with cultural transitions in pre- and protohistoric Japan. (2021)The study states that in addition to the previously discovered Jōmon and Yayoi strands, a new strand was hypothesized to have been introduced, most likely from the southern Korean peninsula, during the Yayoi-Kofun transition period that had strong cultural and political affinity with Korea and China.[5] According to the study, the genetic profile of the Japanese population was established in the Kofun period. Over 70% of their genetic makeup can be attributed to the Kofun component, with 15-20% being attributed to Yayoi and the rest to the Jōmon component.[5]
In the same year, The Nikkei published an article that showed the Kofun strand in modern-day Japanese was concentrated in specific regions such as Kinki, Hokuriku and Shikoku.[59]
Rui Wang (王瑞) and Chun-Chao Wang (汪群超) (2022) reiterated that Yayoi immigrants did not demographically replace the Jōmon. Instead, they co-existed and intermarried with indigenous Jōmon, which led the Yayoi to have 60% Jōmon ancestry. The rest was Northeast Asian. Jōmon admixture was decreased when ancestries related to the Northern Han Chinese were introduced in the Kofun period.[60]
Xiaoxi Liu (劉小晰) et. al (2024) stated that Jōmon admixture in contemporary Japanese people varies depending on region, with admixture being the highest in southern Japan, especially Okinawa (28.5%), followed by northeastern Japan (19%) and western Japan (12%). It also noted that the East Asian strand (labelled "Kofun") was dominant in western Japan while the Northeast Asian strand was dominant in northeastern Japan.[61] However, Liu's research indicates a diminished number for the Kofun strand which was originally thought to have been over 70% in the previous papers, down to at most 35%. The rest consists of the aforementioned Jōmon strand and the northeastern strand labelled as "Three Kingdoms Korea" depending on the region.[61]
However recently, the tripartite ancestry theory is being met with criticism since its introduction in 2021. In essence, Japanese researchers claim that a tripartite theory is redundant as the genetical difference between Yayoi and Kofun groups is not significant enough and that the temporal discrepancy of the periods is minuscule.
According to Pere Gelabert in a 2022 paper, ancient Koreans of the Three Kingdoms period of Korea coded "Korea TK", bore close genetic similarity with Kofun period Japanese people.[62]"The eight individuals from the Korean TK period are positioned within the diversity of East Asian individuals, particularly close to present-day Koreans and Japanese, ancient Kofun from Japan, and several Neolithic Koreans."[62] He indicated that the Kofun strand was already present in the peninsula prior to it being introduced into the archipelago.[62]
A study published in April of 2024 by Hisashi Nakao (中尾 央), claims that the Kofun strand had much overlap with the previous Yayoi strand and that the two strands were genealogically closer than that of the Jōmon group.[63] Nakao stated that "[the results] suggest that the Jōmon people were rather different from the Yayoi and Kofun people in the facial height and the anterior–posterior length [...] indicating that temporal differences are not significant among the Yayoi and Kofun periods. [...] the large overlap in morphological variation between the Yayoi and Kofun people could be an important step in further research."[63] The research also boasts of using the largest Kofun samples to date.[63]
A recent study published by the University of Tokyo in October of 2024 also refuted the tripartite origin theory,[64] claiming that the Kofun strand was not a single strand that was introduced separately into Japan, but a strand that was part of an already existing group within the Korean peninsula.[65] According to the study, late-Yayoi period individuals carried both Yayoi and Kofun DNA, supporting Nakao's theory of lack of temporal differences between the two periods. The lead researcher and professor at the University of Tokyo's Department of Biological Sciences, Jun Ohashi (大橋 順) spoke with Science Daily,[6] further explaining the new findings and criticizing the previous assumption. "Our results suggest that between the Yayoi and Kofun periods, the majority of immigrants to the Japanese archipelago originated primarily from the Korean peninsula," says Ohashi. "The results also mean the three-way admixture model, which posits that a Northeast Asian group migrated to the Japanese archipelago during the Yayoi period and an East Asian group during the Kofun period, is incorrect."[6]
A recent interview with the director of the National Museum of Nature and Science, Kenichi Shinoda (篠田 謙一) in December of 2024 summarized the current consensus in regards to the genomic makeup of the modern Japanese. Shinoda stated that over 90% of the modern Japanese DNA derives from an ancient strand that originated at an area near the Liao River around 50,000 years ago, where it was then introduced to the Korean peninsula (which in turn mixed with the Southern Jōmon-like inhabitants) and 10,000 years later was introduced into the Japanese archipelago.[66] Shinoda also remarked that these migrations happened throughout the later Yayoi period and that the Japanese genes remained homogenous since then, stating that "the genetic makeup of the ancient Yayoi people and us (Yamato people) are almost identical".[66] The director did not mention "Kofun", but insisted on calling the later settlers as "Toraijin (Immigrants)" or more specifically "later-Yayoi period settlers", despite taking part in previous studies surrounding the strand and mentioning it at the time of its proposal.[67]
Rajvir Yadav et al. (2000) stated the sitting height to stature ratios of different populations: South Indian (0.4922), female Indian (0.4974), Eastern Indian (0.4991), Southeastern African (0.5096), Central Indian (0.5173), US (0.5202), Western Indian (0.5243), German (0.5266) and Japanese (0.5452).[70]
Hirofumi Matsumura et al. (2001) and Hideo Matsumoto et al. (2009) said that the Japanese and Vietnamese people are regarded to be a mix of Northeast Asians and Southeast Asians. However, the amount of Northern genetics is higher in Japanese people compared to Vietnamese, who are closer to other Southeast Asians (Thai or Bamar people).[71][72]
Neville Moray (2005) said that, for Korean and Japanese pilots, sitting height is more than 54% of their stature, with about 46% of their stature from leg length. Moray said that, for Americans and most Europeans, sitting height is about 52% of their stature, with about 48% of their stature from leg length. Moray indicated that modifications in basic cockpit geometry are required to accommodate Japanese and Vietnamesepilots. Moray said that the Japanese have longer torsos and a higher shoulder point than the Vietnamese, but the Japanese have about similar arm lengths to the Vietnamese, so the control stick would have to be moved 8cm closer to the pilot for the Japanese and 7cm closer to the pilot for the Vietnamese. Moray said that, due to having shorter legs than Americans, rudder pedals must be moved closer to the pilot by 10cm for the Japanese and 12cm for the Vietnamese.[73]
Craniometry
According to Pietrusewsky, the group most similar to the Japanese cranial bones were the Koreans. Meanwhile, Chinese, Mongolians and Southeast Asians were distinguished from the Japanese. (2010)
Ann Kumar (1998) said that Michael Pietrusewsky (1992) said that, in a craniometric study, the cranial bones of Southeast Asians (Borneo, Vietnam, Sulu, Java, and Sulawesi etc.) are closer to Japanese, in that order, than Mongolian and Chinese populations are close to Japanese. In the craniometric study, Michael Pietrusewsky (1992) said that, even though Japanese peoplecluster with Mongolians, Chinese and Southeast Asians in a larger Asian cluster, the cranial bones of Japanese people are more closely aligned with several Mainland and Island Southeast Asian samples than with Mongolians and Chinese. However, Pietrusewsky (1992) also said, more research is needed on the similarity of the cranial bones between Japanese and Southeast Asians.[75][76]
In a craniometric study, Pietrusewsky (1994) found that the Japanese series, which was a series that spanned from the Yayoi period to modern times, formed a single branch with Korea.[77] Later, Pietrusewsky (1999) found, however, that Korean and Yayoi people were very highly separated in the East Asian cluster, indicating that the connection that Japanese have with Korea would not have derived from Yayoi people.[77] However, in a follow-up study, Pietrusewsky (2010) corrected that East Asians and Southeast Asians were markedly separated from each other. He found that Koreans had the most similar cranial bones to ancient and modern Japanese including the Yayoi people and Jōmon people, followed by Taiwan and Hainan.[52] He stated that a common origin of Northeast Asians could be traced and that they began entering the Japanese archipelago at the beginning of the Yayoi period.[52]
Park Dae-kyoon et al. (2001) said that distance analysis based on thirty-nine non-metric cranial traits showed that Koreans are closer craniometrically to Kazakhs and Mongols than to the populations in China and Japan.[78]
Torimitsu et. al (2024) states that there is quantifiable dimorphism in the cranium of Japanese people, similar to Thais, Indonesians, Filipinos and Malays. In addition, the nasal height and breadth of the Japanese were reported to be greater and smaller than Filipinos respectively, although Thais possessed greater nasal height and breadth than the Japanese. Japanese skulls also share some similarities with Hispanics, implied by the frequency of Hispanic skulls from southwestern United States being misclassified as Asian, particularly Japanese.[79]
The Ryukyuans are a Japonic-speaking East Asian ethnic group indigenous to the Ryukyu Islands, which stretch from the island of Kyushu to the island of Taiwan. Administratively, most Ryukyuans live in either Okinawa Prefecture or Kagoshima Prefecture within Japan. They speak the Ryukyuan languages, considered to be one of the two branches of the Japonic language family, the other being Japanese and its dialects.
The Yayoi period is a period in Japanese history that started in the late Neolithic period in Japan, continued through the Bronze Age, and towards its end crossed into the Iron Age.
The Kofun period is an era in the history of Japan from about 300 to 538 AD, following the Yayoi period. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes collectively called the Yamato period. This period is the earliest era of recorded history in Japan, but studies depend heavily on archaeology since the chronology of historical sources tends to be distorted. The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mound dating from this era.
Japanese people are an East Asian ethnic group native to the Japanese archipelago. Japanese people constitute 97.4% of the population of the country of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 125 million people are of Japanese descent, making them one of the largest ethnic groups. Approximately 120.8 million Japanese people are residents of Japan, and there are approximately 4 million members of the Japanese diaspora, known as Nikkeijin (日系人).
The Yamato or Wajin are an East Asian ethnic group that comprises over 98% of the population of Japan. Genetic and anthropometric studies have shown that the Yamato people predominantly descend from the Yayoi and Kofun people, who migrated to Japan from the continent beginning during the 1st millennium BC, and to a lesser extent the indigenous Jōmon people who had inhabited the Japanese archipelago for millennia prior.
The Japanese Paleolithic period is the period of human inhabitation in Japan predating the development of pottery, generally before 10,000 BC. The starting dates commonly given to this period are from around 40,000 BC, with recent authors suggesting that there is good evidence for habitation from c. 36,000 BC onwards. The period extended to the beginning of the Mesolithic Jōmon period, or around 14,000 BC.
Hāfu is a Japanese language term used to refer to a person born in Japan with half-Japanese and half non-Japanese ancestry. The word can also be used to describe anyone with mixed-racial ancestry in general. As many consider Japan to be one of the most homogeneous societies on the planet, children who have one parent of non-Japanese ancestry are called hāfu Japanese and often face prejudice and discrimination from native Japanese citizens of full Japanese ancestry. Hāfu individuals are well represented in Japanese media and abroad, and recent studies in the 2010s estimate that 1 in 30 children born in Japan are born to interracial couples.
The Yayoi people were an ancient people that immigrated to the Japanese archipelago during the Yayoi period and are characterized through Yayoi material culture. Some argue for an earlier start of the Yayoi period, between 1000 and 800 BC, but this date is controversial. The people of the Yayoi culture are regarded as the spreaders of agriculture and the Japonic languages throughout the whole archipelago, and were characterized by both local Jōmon hunter-gatherer and mainland Asian migrant ancestry.
Jōmon people is the generic name of the indigenous hunter-gatherer population that lived in the Japanese archipelago during the Jōmon period. They were united through a common Jōmon culture, which reached a considerable degree of sedentism and cultural complexity.
The classification of the Japonic languages and their external relations is unclear. Linguists traditionally consider the Japonic languages to belong to an independent family; indeed, until the classification of Ryukyuan and eventually Hachijō as separate languages within a Japonic family rather than as dialects of Japanese, Japanese was considered a language isolate.
Chuka-kei people, or Chinese people in Japan include any Japanese individuals self-identifying as ethnic Chinese or Chinese permanent residents of Japan living in Japan. People aged 22 or older cannot possess dual-citizenship in Japan, so Chinese possessing Japanese citizenship typically no longer possess Chinese citizenship. The term "Chinese people" typically refers to the Han Chinese, the main ethnic group living in China (PRC), Taiwan (ROC) and Singapore. Officially, China (PRC) is home to 55 additional ethnic minorities, including people such as Tibetans, though these people might not self-identify as Chinese. Han Chinese people have had a long history in Japan as a minority.
In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup Y is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
The Minatogawa Man or Minatogawa specimens are the prehistoric population of Okinawa, Japan, represented by four skeletons, two male and two female, and some isolated bones dated between 20,000 and 22,000 years BCE. They are among the oldest skeletons of hominins yet discovered in Japan.
In the context of the recent African origin of modern humans, the Southern Dispersal scenario refers to the early migration along the southern coast of Asia, from the Arabian Peninsula via Persia and India to Southeast Asia and Oceania. Alternative names include the "southern coastal route" or "rapid coastal settlement", with later descendants of those migrations eventually colonizing the rest of Eastern Eurasia, the remainder of Oceania, and the Americas.
In Japanese history, the Jōmon period is the time between c. 14,000 and 300 BC, during which Japan was inhabited by a diverse hunter-gatherer and early agriculturalist population united through a common Jōmon culture, which reached a considerable degree of sedentism and cultural complexity. The name "cord-marked" was first applied by the American zoologist and orientalist Edward S. Morse, who discovered sherds of pottery in 1877 and subsequently translated "straw-rope pattern" into Japanese as Jōmon. The pottery style characteristic of the first phases of Jōmon culture was decorated by impressing cords into the surface of wet clay and is generally accepted to be among the oldest in the world.
Sanganji shell mound is a Late-to-Final Jōmon shell mound in Shinchi, Fukushima, Tōhoku region, Japan. The shell mound was excavated in 1952 by the Special Committee for Jomon Chronology of the Japanese Archaeological Association and in 1954 by the University of Tokyo Department of Anthropology. The remains of over 40 individuals were excavated from the site. The remains are now housed in The University Museum at the University of Tokyo.
Haplogroup C-M8 also known as Haplogroup C1a1 is a Y-chromosome haplogroup. It is one of two branches of Haplogroup C1a, one of the descendants of Haplogroup C-M130.
Haplogroup D-M55 (M64.1/Page44.1) also known as Haplogroup D1a2a is a Y-chromosome haplogroup. It is one of two branches of Haplogroup D1a. The other is D1a1, which is found with high frequency in Tibetans and other Tibeto-Burmese populations and geographical close groups. D is also distributed with low to medium frequency in Central Asia, East Asia, and Mainland Southeast Asia.
This article summarizes the genetic makeup and population history of East Asian peoples and their connection to genetically related populations such as Southeast Asians and North Asians, as well as Oceanians, and partly, Central Asians, South Asians, and Native Americans. They are collectively referred to as "East Eurasians" in population genomics.
Toraijin refers to the people who came to Japan from mainland Asia in ancient times, as well as their descendants. Up until the 1960s, these people were commonly called the Kikajin, meaning 'naturalized people', but beginning in the 1970s, the term was replaced by Toraijin, meaning 'people who have crossed over' as not all those who came to Japan became naturalized. They arrived in Japan as early as the Jōmon or Yayoi period, and their arrival became more significant from the end of the 4th century to the late 7th century. During this period, they introduced Confucianism, learning, medicine, the calendar, and cultural practices such as Sue ware production and weaving to Japan. They were favored by the Yamato Imperial Court, and many were appointed to government positions.
References
↑ Boer, Elisabeth de; Yang, Melinda A.; Kawagoe, Aileen; Barnes, Gina L. (2020). "Japan considered from the hypothesis of farmer/language spread". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2: e13. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.7. ISSN2513-843X. PMC10427481. PMID37588377. S2CID218926428. The term Yayoi has four uses, which can create much confusion. First, it is the designation of the period beginning with the introduction of rice agriculture around 1000 BC until the advent of the Mounded Tomb Culture in the third century AD. Yayoi is a period designation exclusive to Japan; it includes both farmers and hunter–gatherers and entails the agricultural transition in a time-transgressive and regionally disparate process. Second, 'Yayoi people' may refer to anyone living in the Japanese Islands in the Yayoi period, or third, Yayoi may refer specifically to admixed people (Mumun + Jōmon in varying in proportions and across great distances). Fourth, Yayoi may indicate acculturation: the adoption of (rice) agriculture (and other continental material culture) by Jōmon-lineage people in the Yayoi period. All of these conflicting aspects of Yayoi must be kept in mind and clearly defined in any discussion.
↑ Mitsuru Sakitani (2009). 『DNA・考古・言語の学際研究が示す新・日本列島史』[New History of the Japanese Islands Shown by Interdisciplinary Studies on DNA, Archeology, and Language] (in Japanese). Bensei Publishing. ISBN9784585053941.
↑ Gakuhari, Takashi; Nakagome, Shigeki; Rasmussen, Simon; Allentoft, Morten; Sato, Takehiro; Korneliussen, Thorfinn; Chuinneagáin, Blánaid; Matsumae, Hiromi; Koganebuchi, Kae; Schmidt, Ryan; Mizushima, Souichiro (March 15, 2019) [2019]. "Jomon genome sheds light on East Asian population history"(PDF). bioRxiv. pp.3–5.
↑ Kim, W., Saitou, N., & Jin, L. (1992). [Phylogenetic relationships of East Asian populations, inferred from restriction patterns of mitochondrial DNA](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1510113/). *Molecular Biology and Evolution, 9*(5), 547-553. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040753
↑ Kim, Young Jin; Jin, Han Jun (2013). "Dissecting the genetic structure of Korean population using genome-wide SNP arrays". Genes Genom. 35 (3): 355–363. doi:10.1007/s13258-013-0082-8.
↑ from the book, 2009, Japanese published by Heidansha. "日本人". マイペディア. 平凡社. Original sentence:旧石器時代または縄文時代以来、現在の北海道から琉球諸島までの地域に住んだ集団を祖先に持つ。シベリア、樺太、朝鮮半島などを経由する北方ルート、南西諸島などを経由する南方ルートなど複数の渡来経路が考えられる
↑ Tajima, Atsushi; Pan, I.-Hung; Fucharoen, Goonnapa; Fucharoen, Supan; Matsuo, Masafumi; Tokunaga, Katsushi; Juji, Takeo; Hayami, Masanori; Omoto, Keiichi; Horai, Satoshi (1 January 2002). "Three major lineages of Asian Y chromosomes: implications for the peopling of east and southeast Asia". Human Genetics. 110 (1): 80–88. doi:10.1007/s00439-001-0651-9. PMID11810301. S2CID30808716.
↑ Mitsuru Sakitani (2009). 『DNA・考古・言語の学際研究が示す新・日本列島史』[New History of the Japanese Islands Shown by Interdisciplinary Studies on DNA, Archeology, and Language] (in Japanese). Bensei Publishing. ISBN9784585053941.
1 2 3 4 Janhunen, Juha (2010). "Reconstructing the Language Map of Prehistorical Northeast Asia". Studia Orientalia (108): 281–304. there are strong indications that the neighbouring Baekje state (in the southwest) was predominantly Japonic-speaking until it was linguistically Koreanized.
↑ Vovin, Alexander (2013). "From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean". Korean Linguistics. 15 (2): 222–240.
↑ Nikkei Science (23 June 2021). "渡来人、四国に多かった？ ゲノムが明かす日本人ルーツ"[Were there many migrants in Shikoku? Japanese roots revealed by genome analysis]. nikkei.com (in Japanese). Retrieved 1 May 2022.
↑ nishikawa (2021-09-21). "私の個人的な妄想をかき立てる日本人のゲノム史". AASJホームページ | NPO法人 オール・アバウト・サイエンス・ジャパンのホームページ (in Japanese).
↑ Pheasant, Stephen. (2003).Bodyspace: Anthropometry, ergonomics and the design of work (2nd. ed.). Taylor & Francis. Page 159. Retrieved March 14, 2018, from Google Books.
↑ Matsumura, Hirofumi; Cuong, Nguyen Lan; Thuy, Nguyen Kim; Anezaki, Tomoko (2001). "Dental Morphology of the Early Hoabinian, the Neolithic da but and the Metal Age Dong Son Civilized Peoples in Vietnam". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie. 83 (1): 59–73. doi:10.1127/zma/83/2001/59. JSTOR25757578. PMID11372468.
↑ Kumar, Ann. (1998). An Indonesian Component in the Yayoi?: the Evidence of Biological Anthropology. Anthropological Science 106(3). Page 268. Retrieved February 22, 2018, from link to the PDF document.
↑ Pietrusewsky, Michael. (1992). Japan, Asia and the Pacific: A multivariate craniometric investigation. In book: Japanese as a member of the Asian and Pacific populations, Publisher: Kyoto: International Research Center for Japanese Studies. International Symposium No. 4., Page 47. Retrieved February 22, 2018, from link to the article.
1 2 Kumar, Ann. (2009). Globalizing the Prehistory of Japan: Language, Genes and Civilisation. London and New York: RoutledgeTaylor & Francis Group. Page 79 & 88. Retrieved January 23, 2018, from link.
↑ Park, Dae Kyoon; Lee, U Young; Lee, Jun Hyun; Choi, Byoung Young; Koh, Ki Seok; Kim, Hee Jin; Park, Sun Joo; Han, Seung Ho (2001). "Non-metric Traits of Korean Skulls". Korean Journal of Physical Anthropology. 14 (2): 117. doi:10.11637/kjpa.2001.14.2.117 (inactive 9 January 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2025 (link)
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