Related Research Articles
In various Chinese religions and philosophies,the Tao or Dao is the natural lessons of the universe that one's intuition must discern to realize the potential for individual wisdom and spiritual growth,as conceived in the context of East Asian philosophy,religion,and related traditions. This seeing of life cannot be grasped as a concept. Rather,it is seen through actual living experience of one's everyday being. Its name derives from a Chinese character with meanings including 'way','path','road',and sometimes 'doctrine' or 'principle'.
Kumārajīva was a Buddhist monk,scholar,missionary and translator from Kucha. Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greatest translators of Chinese Buddhism. According to Lu Cheng,Kumarajiva's translations are "unparalleled either in terms of translation technique or degree of fidelity".
Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. Tiantai Buddhism emphasizes the "One Vehicle" (Ekayāna) doctrine derived from the Lotus Sūtra as well as Mādhyamaka philosophy,particularly as articulated in the works of the 4th patriarch Zhiyi. Brook Ziporyn,professor of ancient and medieval Chinese religion and philosophy,states that Tiantai Buddhism is "the earliest attempt at a thoroughgoing Sinitic reworking of the Indian Buddhist tradition." According to Paul Swanson,scholar of Buddhist studies,Tiantai Buddhism grew to become "one of the most influential Buddhist traditions in China and Japan."
In Buddhist philosophy,Buddha-nature is the potential for all sentient beings to become a Buddha or the fact that all beings already have a pure buddha-essence within. "Buddha-nature" is the common English translation for several related Mahayana Buddhist terms,most notably tathāgatagarbha and buddhadhātu,but also sugatagarbha, and buddhagarbha. Tathāgatagarbha can mean "the womb" or "embryo" (garbha) of the "thus-gone one" (tathāgata),and can also mean "containing a tathāgata". Buddhadhātu can mean "buddha-element," "buddha-realm" or "buddha-substrate".
No-mind is a mental state that is important in East Asian religions,Asian culture,and the arts. The idea is discussed in classic Zen Buddhist texts and has been described as "the experience of an instantaneous severing of thought that occurs in the course of a thoroughgoing pursuit of a Buddhist meditative exercise". It is not a total absence of thinking however,instead,it refers to an absence of clinging,conceptual proliferation,or being stuck in thought. Chinese Buddhist texts also link this experience with Buddhist metaphysical concepts,like buddha-nature,Dharmakaya and non-duality. The term is also found in Daoist literature,including the Zhuangzi.
The Lingbao School,also known as the School of the Sacred Jewel or the School of Numinous Treasure,was an important Daoist school that emerged in China in between the Jin dynasty and the Liu Song dynasty in the early fifth century CE. It lasted for about two hundred years until it was absorbed into the Shangqing and Zhengyi currents during the Tang dynasty. The Lingbao School is a synthesis of religious ideas based on Shangqing texts,the rituals of the Celestial Masters,and Buddhist practices.
Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translating from specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition.
Fotu Cheng was a Buddhist monk and missionary from Kucha. He studied in Kashmir and came to Luoyang in 310 CE,and was active in the spread of Buddhism in China.
Zhenren is a Chinese term that first appeared in the Zhuangzi meaning "Taoist spiritual master" in those writings. Religious Taoism mythologized zhenren,having them occupy various places in the celestial hierarchy sometimes synonymous with xian,while Chinese Buddhism used it to translate Arahant "Enlightened One".
Essence-function is a key concept in Chinese philosophy and East Asian Buddhism. It is a compound of two terms:"essence",the absolute reality,cause,or source of all things,and "function",the manifestations of ti,which make up the impermanent and relative concrete reality. Ti and yong do not represent two separate things,but aspects of the same non-dual process.
The concept of sin,in the sense of violating a universal moral code,was unknown in Chinese philosophy and folk religion until around the second century CE,when Buddhism arrived from India and religious Daoism originated. While English lexically differentiates theological sin from legal crime,the Chinese language uses one word zui 罪meaning "crime;guilt;misconduct;sin;fault;blame."
The Zuowanglun or Zuowang lun is a Taoist meditative text that was written by the Shangqing School patriarch Sima Chengzhen (647–735). Taoism incorporated many Buddhist practices during the Tang dynasty (618–907),and the Zuowanglun combined meditation techniques from Taoism,Buddhism and Confucian concept (正心誠意).
Taoist meditation,also spelled Daoist,refers to the traditional meditative practices associated with the Chinese philosophy and religion of Taoism,including concentration,mindfulness,contemplation,and visualization. The earliest Chinese references to meditation date from the Warring States period.
Zhu Faya or Faya was a Chinese Jin Dynasty Buddhist monk and teacher from Hejian,best known for developing the Geyi method of explaining numbered categories of Sanskrit terms from the Buddhist canon with comparable lists from the Chinese classics. The dates of Zhu Faya's life are unknown,but he was a student of the Indian monk Fotudeng or Zhu Fotudeng 竺佛圖澄,and a contemporary of the translators Dao'an 道安(312–385) and Zhu Fatai 竺法汰(320–387).
Bianhua,meaning 'transformation' or 'metamorphosis',was a keyword developed in both Daoism and Chinese Buddhism. Daoists used bianhua describing things transforming from one type to another,such as from a caterpillar to a butterfly. Buddhist translators used bianhua for Sanskrit nirmāṇa 'manifest through transformations',such as the nirmāṇa-kaya 'transformation body' of a Buddha's reincarnations.
The Yiqiejing yinyi is the oldest surviving Chinese dictionary of technical Buddhist terminology,and the archetype for later Chinese bilingual dictionaries. This specialized glossary was compiled by the Tang dynasty lexicographer and monk Xuanying (玄應),who was a translator for the famous pilgrim and Sanskritist monk Xuanzang. When Xuanying died he had only finished 25 chapters of the dictionary,but in 807 another Tang monk named Huilin (慧琳) compiled an enlarged 100-chapter version bearing the same title.
The Yiqiejing yinyi 一切經音義"Pronunciation and Meaning in the Complete Buddhist Canon" was compiled by the Tang dynasty lexicographer monk Huilin 慧琳as an expanded revision of the original Yiqiejing yinyi compiled by Xuanying 玄應. Collectively,Xuanying's 25-chapter and Huilin's 100-chapter versions constitute the oldest surviving Chinese dictionary of Buddhist technical terminology. A recent history of Chinese lexicography call Huilin's Yiqiejing yinyi "a composite collection of all the glossaries of scripture words and expressions compiled in and before the Tang Dynasty" and "the archetype of the Chinese bilingual dictionary".
The Chongxuan School was a Taoist philosophical current influenced by Buddhist Madhyamaka thought. It first appeared in the fifth century,and was influential from the eighth to tenth centuries during the Tang dynasty. It was not a structured philosophical school;it was identified and named by the Daodejing commentator Du Guangting. Chongxuan's most important representatives were Cheng Xuanying and Li Rong (李榮),both from the seventh century CE.
In ancient China,the term fan became associated with a basic concept within Daoism:the Daodejing remarks "Reversal is the movement of the Way ... Being is born from nonbeing." Daoist texts use fan in three interconnected meanings:as 'return to the root','cyclical return',and 'return to the contrary'. In Chinese cosmology,everything in the universe emerges from the primordial Dao,continually transforms,and inevitably returns to it,which parallels the eternal return in philosophy or cyclic model in physical cosmology. Fan is also significant in Chinese alchemy and Daoist meditation.
Shengtai is a Chinese syncretic metaphor for achieving Buddhist liberation or Daoist transcendence. The circa fifth century CE Chinese Buddhist Humane King Sutra first recorded shengtai describing the bodhisattva path towards attaining Buddhahood;shengtai was related with the more familiar Indian Mahayana concept of tathāgatagarbha ("embryo/womb of the Buddha",Chinese rulaizang that all sentient beings are born with the Buddha-nature potential to become enlightened. The Chan Buddhist teaching master Mazu Daoyi first mentioned post-enlightenment zhangyang shengtai,and by the tenth century Chan monks were regularly described as recluses nurturing their sacred embryo in isolated locations. The renowned Daoist Zhang Boduan was first to use the expression shengtai in a context of physiological neidan Internal Alchemy,and neidan adepts developed prolonged meditation techniques through which one can supposedly become pregnant,gestate,and give birth to a spiritually perfected doppelganger.
References
- Chan, Wing-tsit, ed. (1963). A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Translated by Chan Wing-tsit. Princeton University Press.
- Ch'en, Kenneth K.S. (1964). Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey. Princeton University Press.
- DeFrancis, John, ed. (2003). ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824827663.
- Fung, Yu-lan (1953). A History of Chinese Philosophy, vol. II: The Period of Classical Learning (from the Second Century B.C. to the Twentieth Century AD). Translated by Derk Bodde. Princeton University Press.
- Hsiao, Kung-chuan (1979). A History of Chinese Political Thought, Vol. I: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century AD. Translated by F.W. Mote. Princeton University Press.
- Hurvitz, Leon N.; Link, Arthur E. (1974). "Three Prajñāpāramitā Prefaces of Tao-an". Mélanges de Sinologie offerts à Monsieur Paul Demiéville II. Bibliothèque de l’Institut des Hautes Études Chinoises, vol. XX. Presses Universitaires de France. pp. 403–70.
- Lai, Whalen (1979). "Limits and Failure of ko-i (Concept-Matching) Buddhism". History of Religions. 18 (3): 238–257. doi:10.1086/462818. S2CID 170134013.
- Link, Arthur E. (1957). "Shyh Daw-an's Preface to Sangharaksa's Yogacarabhumi-sutra and the Problem of Buddho-Taoist Terminology in Early Chinese Buddhism". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 77: 1–14. doi:10.2307/594870. JSTOR 594870.
- Mair, Victor H. (2010). "What is Geyi, After All?". In Alan K.L. Chan; Yuet-Keung Lo (eds.). Philosophy and Religion in Early Medieval China. SUNY Press. pp. 227–264. ISBN 9781438431895. Also available in M., V.H. (2012). "What is Geyi, After All?" . China Report. 48 (1–2): 29–59. doi:10.1177/000944551104800203. S2CID 143043142.
- Tsukamoto Zenryū 塚本善隆 (1942), Shina Bukkyō shi kenkyū 支那佛教史研究, 3 vols., Kyobundō.
- Tsukamoto, Zenryu (1985). A History of Early Chinese Buddhism: From its Introduction to the Death of Hui-yüan. (2 vols.). Translated by Leon Hurvitz. Tokyo - New York City - San Francisco: Kodansha International. Originally published in Japanese as Chū goku Bukkyō tsūshi, Shunjusha, 1979.
- Wright, Arthur F. (1959). Buddhism in Chinese History. Stanford University Press.
Footnotes
- ↑ Mair 2010, p. 228.
- ↑ Thompson, John M. (2015), "Mixed up on ‘Matching Terms’ (geyi): Issues and Confusions in Cross-Cultural Translation." in Brahman and Dao: Comparative Studies of Indian and Chinese Philosophy and Religion. Ed. Ithmar Theodor and Zhihua Yao. Lexington Books: 231-245.
- ↑ DeFrancis 2003, p. 298.
- ↑ DeFrancis 2003, p. 1134.
- ↑ Zürcher, Erik (1980), "Buddhist Influence on Early Taoism: A Survey of Scriptural Evidence," T'oung Pao 66: 84-147. p. 97.
- ↑ Luo, Zhufeng (羅竹風), ed. (1993). Hanyu Da Cidian: An Unabridged Chinese Dictionary on Historical Principles漢語大詞典. Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House. pp. 989–991. ISBN 7-5432-0013-9.; thirteen volumes. CD-ROM ed. ISBN 962-07-0255-7
- ↑ Hanyu Da Zidian Editorial Committee, ed. (2010). Hanyu Da Zidian - The Dictionary of Chinese Character (9 Volumes) (2nd ed.). Hubei Dictionaries Press. ISBN 9787540317447.
- 1 2 3 Mair 2010, p. 229.
- ↑ Mair 2010, p. 230.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 231.
- ↑ Tr. Mather, Richard B. (1976), A new account of tales of the world, by Liu I-ch'ing, with commentary by Liu Chun, University of Minnesota. p. 123.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 236.
- ↑ Mair 2010, p. 235.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 236.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 237.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 239.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 239.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 240.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , pp. 240–1.
- ↑ Chen Yinke 陳寅恪 (1933), "Zhi Mindu xueshuo kao 支愍度學說考", in Guoli Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Lishi Yuyan Yanjiusuo jikan中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊, Caiu Yuanpei's Memorial Volume, part 1, 1-18.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 241.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 242.
- 1 2 Tang Yongtong 湯用彤 (1950), "On Ko-Yi, the Earliest Method by which Indian Buddhism and Chinese Thought were Synthesized’, translated by M.C. Rogers, in Radhakrishnan: Comparative Studies in Philosophy Presented in Honour of His Sixtieth Birthday, George Allen and Unwin, pp. 277–8.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 242.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 243.
- ↑ Tr. Hurvitz, Leon (1969), "Review: Toward a Comprehensive History of Chinese Buddhism for Readers of Japanese by Tsukamoto Zenryū", Journal of the American Oriental Society 89.4: 763-773. p. 770.
- ↑ Fung 1953, p. 241.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 243.
- ↑ Hsiao 1979, p. 657.
- ↑ Hsiao 1979, p. 741.
- ↑ Link 1957, p. 4.
- ↑ Wright 1959, p. 37.
- ↑ Chan 1963, p. 336.
- ↑ Ch'en 1964, pp. 68–9.
- ↑ Mair 2010, p. 244.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 255.
- ↑ Lai 1979, p. 238.
- 1 2 Lai 1979, p. 239.
- ↑ Hurvitz & Link 1974, p. 406.
- ↑ Tsukamoto 1985, 1 p. 248.
- ↑ Tsukamoto 1985, 2 p. 679.
- ↑ Tsukamoto 1985, 1 p. 299.
- ↑ Tsukamoto 1985, 2 p. 705.
- ↑ Tsukamoto 1985, 1 p. 284.
- 1 2 Encyclopædia Britannica 1974.
- ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica 1988.
- ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica (2012), geyi, Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite.
- 1 2 Craig, Edward, ed. (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9780415073103.
- ↑ Xia Zhengnong 夏征農, chief editor (1999), Cihai 辭海, Shanghai cishu chubanshe.
- ↑ Tr. Mair 2010 , p. 255.
- ↑ Zürcher, Erik (1972), The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China, 2 Vols, E.J. Brill. p. 12.
- ↑ Sharf, Robert H. (2001). Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism: A Reading of the Treasure Store Treatise, Studies in East Asian Buddhism 14, Kuroda Institute and University of Hawaii Press. pp. 97-8.
- ↑ Buswell, Robert E., ed. (2004). Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 9780028657189.
- ↑ A. Charles Muller, ed. (2010). "geyi". Digital Dictionary of Buddhism.
- ↑ Itō, Takatoshi (1996), "The Formation of Chinese Buddhism and 'Matching the Meaning' (geyi 格義)", trans. Rolf W. Giebel, Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (The Oriental Library) 54: 65–91. p. 74.
- ↑ Liu Xiaogan (2006), "Reflection on Fanxiang Geyi (Reverse Analogical Interpretation) and the Methodology of Chinese Philosophy," Philosophical Researches 4.
- ↑ Liu Zhen-ning (2007), "On the Strategy of Geyi by Nestorianism for Dissemination in the Tang Dynasty," Journal of Guizhou University (Social Sciences) 5.
- ↑ Mair 2010, p. 249.
- ↑ Mair 2010, p. 250.
- ↑ Mair 2010, p. 251.
- ↑ Fung 1953.
- ↑ Link 1957.
- ↑ Hurvitz & Link 1974.
- ↑ Link, Arthur E. (1958), "Biography of Shih Tao-an," T'oung Pao 46.2: 1-48.
- ↑ Hsiao 1979.
- ↑ Wright 1959.
- ↑ Chan 1963.
- ↑ Ch'en 1964.
- ↑ Lai 1979.
- ↑ Tsukamoto 1985.
- ↑ Liu Jiahu and Dongfang Shao (1992), "Early Buddhism and Taoism in China (A.D. 65-420)," Buddhist-Christian Studies 12: 35-41.