Greece–Ottoman Empire relations

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Greece and the Ottoman Empire established diplomatic relations in the 1830s. This was following Greece's formation after its declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire. Their relations can be characterised as having a history of conflict. There were several wars that they directly and indirectly fought each other and that led to a gradual loss of territory by the Ottoman Empire until its final defeat during World War II.

Contents

Background

Greek and Turk relations: 6th–14th centuries

Byzantine territory (purple), Byzantine campaigns (red) and Seljuk campaigns (green) Byzantium vs Seljuk c 1071 cropped.png
Byzantine territory (purple), Byzantine campaigns (red) and Seljuk campaigns (green)

The Byzantine Empire although a different regime to the nation of Greece, factors into the nations modern relations as heritage. [1] Some view the Byzantine Empire (the Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire during the medieval era) as the medieval expression of a Greek nation and a pre-modern nation state. [2]

The Göktürks of the First Turkic Khaganate were the first Turkic state to use the name Türk politically. [3] The first contact with the Romans (Byzantine Empire) is believed to be 563. [4] [5] The 10th century saw the rise of the Seljuk Turks. [6]

The first conflict between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuk Turks occurred at the Battle of Kapetron in 1048. More notable is the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 and the Turkish settlement of Anatolia that followed. Later, Turkish Anatolian beyliks were established both in formerly Byzantine lands and in the territory of the fragmenting Seljuk Sultanate. [7] One of those beyliks was the Ottoman dynasty and become the Ottoman Empire. [8] In 1453, the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine Empire. [9]

The Rum Millet: 15th–19th centuries

All of modern Greece by the time of the capture of the Despotate of the Morea was under Ottoman authority, with the exception of some of the islands.

A map of the territorial expansion of the Ottoman Empire from 1307 to 1683. Emperi Otoman - Expansion territoriala de 1307 a 1683.png
A map of the territorial expansion of the Ottoman Empire from 1307 to 1683.

Life under the Ottoman Empire had several dimensions:

Romioi in various places of the Greek peninsula would at times rise up against Ottoman rule, taking advantage of wars the Ottoman Empire would engage in. Those uprisings were of mixed scale and impact.

Greek nationalism started to appear in the 18th century.

In March 1821, the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire began. In Constantinople, on Easter Sunday, the Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church, Gregory V, was publicly hanged although he had condemned the revolution and preached obedience to the Sultan in his sermons. [38]

History

Formation of Greece: 1822–1832

Territorial Expansion of Greece from 1832 to 1947 Territorial Expansion of Greece from 1832-1947.gif
Territorial Expansion of Greece from 1832 to 1947

Building on the success of the first year of war, the Greek Constitution of 1822 would be the first of the new state, adopted at the first National Assembly at Epidaurus.

However, the Greek victories would be short-lived as civil war would weaken its ability to react; the Sultan called for aid from his Egyptian vassal Muhammad Ali, who dispatched his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with a fleet and 8,000 men, and later added 25,000 troops. [39] Ibrahim's intervention proved decisive: much of the Peloponnese was reconquered in 1825; the gateway town of Messolonghi fell in 1826; and Athens was taken in 1827. The only territory still held by Greek nationalists was in Nafplion, Mani, Hydra, Spetses and Aegina. [39] [40] [41] During this time, there were many massacres during the Greek War of Independence committed by both revolutionaries and the Ottoman Empire's forces.

The Treaty of London (1827) was declined by the Ottoman Empire, which led to the Battle of Navarino in 1827. The French Morea expedition between 1828 and 1833 would expel Egyptian troops from the Peloponnese and the Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829) which occurred in retaliation due to Russian support at Navarino, led to the Treaty of Adrianople (1829) which enforced the Treaty of London. Karl Marx in an article in the New York Tribune (21 April 1853), wrote: "Who solved finally the Greek case? It was neither the rebellion of Ali Pasha, neither the battle in Navarino, neither the French Army in Peloponnese, neither the conferences and protocols of London; but it was Diebitsch, who invaded through the Balkans to Evros". [42]

The establishment of a Greek state was recognized in the London Protocol of 1828 but it was not until the London Protocol (1830), which amended the decisions of the 1829 protocol, that Greece was established as an independent, sovereign state. The assassination of Ioannis Kapodistrias, Greece's first governor, would lead to the London Conference of 1832 and that formed the Kingdom of Greece with the Treaty of Constantinople (1832).

The first borders of the Greek state consisted of the Greek mainland south of a line from Arta to Volos plus Euboea and the Cyclades islands in the Aegean Sea. The rest of the Greek-speaking lands, including Crete, Cyprus and the rest of the Aegean islands, Epirus, Thessaly, Macedonia and Thrace, remained under Ottoman rule. Over one million Greeks also lived in what is now Turkey, mainly in the Aegean region of Asia Minor, especially around Smyrna, in the Pontus region on the Black Sea coast, in the Gallipoli peninsula, in Cappadocia, in Istanbul, in Imbros and in Tenedos.

Kingdom of Greece and Ottoman Empire: 1832–1913

The first Ottoman ambassador to the Greek Kingdom, the Phanariote Konstantinos Mousouros, at a ball in the royal palace in Athens The Ottoman ambassador and his page at a ball at the royal residence in Athens, 1838.jpg
The first Ottoman ambassador to the Greek Kingdom, the Phanariote Konstantinos Mousouros, at a ball in the royal palace in Athens

The relations between Greece and the Ottoman Empire during this time period were shaped by two concepts:

There were five wars that directly and indirectly linked all conflict

The Young Turks, who seized power in the Ottoman Empire in 1908, were Turkish nationalists whose objective was to create a strong, centrally governed state. The Christian minorities of the Empire, including Greeks, saw their position in the Empire deteriorate.

End of the Ottoman Empire and formation of Turkey: 1914–1923

Greece entered the First World War on the side of the Allies in the summer of 1917 following The Great Division between the King and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos The Ottoman Empire entered the War with the attack on Russia's Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. The attack prompted Russia and its allies, Britain and France, to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914. The Armistice of Mudros was signed on 31 October 1918, ending the Ottoman participation in World War I.

With the Allies victory in World War I, Greece was rewarded with territorial acquisitions, specifically Western Thrace (Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine) and Eastern Thrace and the Smyrna area (Treaty of Sèvres). Greek gains were largely undone by the subsequent Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922). [50]

Overcrowded boats with refugees fleeing the Great fire of Smyrna. The photo was taken from the launch boat of a US warship. Asia Minor massacres.jpg
Overcrowded boats with refugees fleeing the Great fire of Smyrna. The photo was taken from the launch boat of a US warship.

On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres, led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly formed "Republic of Turkey" as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital. [56] The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey, whereby 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey. [57]

There were atrocities and ethnic cleansing by both sides during this period. The war with Greece and the revolutionary Turks saw both sides commit atrocities. The Greek genocide was the systematic killing of the Christian Ottoman Greek population of Anatolia which started before the World War I, continued during the war and its aftermath (1914–1922). It was perpetrated by the government of the Ottoman Empire led by the Three Pashas and by the Government of the Grand National Assembly led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, [59] against the indigenous Greek population of the Empire.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greek War of Independence</span> Greek rebellion against the Ottoman Empire (1821–1829)

The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. In 1826, the Greeks were assisted by the British Empire, Kingdom of France, and the Russian Empire, while the Ottomans were aided by their vassals, especially by the Eyalet of Egypt. The war led to the formation of modern Greece, which would be expanded to its modern size in later years. The revolution is celebrated by Greeks around the world as independence day on 25 March.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rum (endonym)</span> Term referring to several things

Rūm, also romanized as Roum, is a derivative of Parthian (frwm) terms, ultimately derived from Greek Ῥωμαῖοι. Both terms are endonyms of the pre-Islamic inhabitants of Anatolia, the Middle East and the Balkans and date to when those regions were parts of the Eastern Roman Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rumelia</span> Term for the Balkans under Ottoman rule

Rumelia was the name of a historical region in Southeastern Europe that was administered by the Ottoman Empire, roughly corresponding to the Balkans. In its wider sense, it was used to refer to all Ottoman possessions and vassals in Europe. These would later be geopolitically classified as "the Balkans", although Hungary, Moldova and Slovakia are often excluded. During the period of its existence, Rumelia was more often known in English as Turkey in Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Megali Idea</span> Irredentist concept which sought to revive the Byzantine Empire

The Megali Idea is a nationalist and irredentist concept that expresses the goal of reviving the Byzantine Empire, by establishing a Greek state, which would include the large Greek populations that were still under Ottoman rule after the end of the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) and all the regions that had large Greek populations.

<i>Enosis</i> Modern Greek political movement

Enosis is an ideology calling for the incorporation of various Greek communities living outside of Greece into the Greek state. The idea is related to the Megali Idea, a concept of a Greek state that dominated Greek politics following the creation of modern Greece in 1830. The Megali Idea called for the reunification of all ethnic Greek lands, parts of which had participated in the Greek War of Independence in the 1820s but were unsuccessful and so remained under foreign rule.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orlov revolt</span> 1770 Greek uprising against the Ottoman Empire

The Orlov revolt was a Greek uprising in the Peloponnese and later also in Crete that broke out in February 1770, following the arrival of Russian Admiral Alexey Orlov, commander of the Imperial Russian Navy during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), at the Mani Peninsula. The revolt, a major precursor to the Greek War of Independence, was part of Catherine the Great's so-called "Greek Plan" and was eventually suppressed by the Ottomans by June 1770, three months after it had begun.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ottoman Greece</span> Period of Ottoman rule of Greece

The vast majority of the territory of present-day Greece was at some point incorporated within the Ottoman Empire. The period of Ottoman rule in Greece, lasting from the mid-15th century until the successful Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821 and the First Hellenic Republic was proclaimed in 1822, is known in Greece as Turkocracy. Some regions, like the Ionian islands and various temporary Venetian possessions of the Stato da Mar, were not incorporated in the Ottoman Empire. The Mani Peninsula in the Peloponnese was not fully integrated into the Ottoman Empire, but was under Ottoman suzerainty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phanariots</span> Greek nobility from Phanar, Constantinople

Phanariots, Phanariotes, or Fanariots were members of prominent Greek families in Phanar, the chief Greek quarter of Constantinople where the Ecumenical Patriarchate is located, who traditionally occupied four important positions in the Ottoman Empire: Hospodar of Moldavia, Hospodar of Wallachia, Grand Dragoman of the Porte and Grand Dragoman of the Fleet. Despite their cosmopolitanism and often-Western education, the Phanariots were aware of their Greek ancestry and culture; according to Nicholas Mavrocordatos' Philotheou Parerga, "We are a race completely Hellenic".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greeks in Turkey</span> Ethnic group in Turkey

The Greeks in Turkey constitute a small population of Greek and Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox Christians who mostly live in Istanbul, as well as on the two islands of the western entrance to the Dardanelles: Imbros and Tenedos. Greeks are one of the four ethnic minorities officially recognized in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, together with Jews, Armenians, and Bulgarians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greek nationalism</span> Ideology perceiving Greeks as a nation

Greek nationalism, otherwise referred to as Hellenic nationalism, refers to the nationalism of Greeks and Greek culture. As an ideology, Greek nationalism originated and evolved in classical Greece. In modern times, Greek nationalism became a major political movement beginning in the early 19th century, which culminated in the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) against the Ottoman Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ottoman Greeks</span> Ethnic Greeks living within the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Greeks were ethnic Greeks who lived in the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922), much of which is in modern Turkey. Ottoman Greeks were Greek Orthodox Christians who belonged to the Rum Millet. They were concentrated in eastern Thrace, and western, central, and northeastern Anatolia. There were also sizeable Greek communities elsewhere in the Ottoman Balkans, Ottoman Armenia, Ottoman Syria and the Ottoman Caucasus, including in what, between 1878 and 1917, made up the Russian Caucasus province of Kars Oblast, in which Pontic Greeks, northeastern Anatolian Greeks, and Caucasus Greeks who had collaborated with the Russian Imperial Army in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 were settled in over 70 villages, as part of official Russian policy to re-populate with Orthodox Christians an area that was traditionally made up of Ottoman Muslims and Armenians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire</span>

In AD 1453, the city of Constantinople, the capital and last stronghold of the Byzantine Empire, fell to the Ottoman Empire. By this time Egypt had been under Muslim control for some eight centuries. Jerusalem had been conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate Muslims in 638, won back by Rome in 1099 under the First Crusade and then reconquered by Saladin's forces during the siege of Jerusalem in 1187. Later in the seventh Crusade, it was briefly taken back by the Catholics once again. It was conquered by the Ottomans in 1517. Orthodoxy, however, was very strong in Russia which had recently acquired an autocephalous status; and thus Moscow called itself the Third Rome, as the cultural heir of Constantinople. Under Ottoman rule, the Greek Orthodox Church acquired power as an autonomous millet. The ecumenical patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of the entire "Greek Orthodox nation", which encompassed all the Eastern Orthodox subjects of the Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greece in the Balkan Wars</span> War lasting from 1912 until 1913

The participation of Greece in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 is one of the most important episodes in modern Greek history, as it allowed the Greek state to almost double its size and achieve most of its present territorial size. It also served as a catalyst of political developments, as it brought to prominence two personalities, whose relationship would dominate the next decade and have long-lasting repercussions for Greece: the Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, and the Army's commander-in-chief, the Crown Prince and later King, Constantine I.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Background of the Greek War of Independence</span>

The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the subsequent fall of the successor states of the Eastern Roman Empire marked the end of Byzantine sovereignty. Since then, the Ottoman Empire ruled the Balkans and Anatolia, although there were some exceptions: the Ionian Islands were under Venetian rule, and Ottoman authority was challenged in mountainous areas, such as Agrafa, Sfakia, Souli, Himara and the Mani Peninsula. Orthodox Christians were granted some political rights under Ottoman rule, but they were considered inferior subjects. The majority of Greeks were called rayas by the Turks, a name that referred to the large mass of subjects in the Ottoman ruling class. Meanwhile, Greek intellectuals and humanists who had migrated west before or during the Ottoman invasions began to compose orations and treatises calling for the liberation of their homeland. In 1463, Demetrius Chalcondyles called on Venice and “all of the Latins” to aid the Greeks against the Ottomans, he composed orations and treatises calling for the liberation of Greece from what he called “the abominable, monstrous, and impious barbarian Turks.” In the 17th century, Greek scholar Leonardos Philaras spent much of his career in persuading Western European intellectuals to support Greek independence. However, Greece was to remain under Ottoman rule for several more centuries. In the 18th and 19th century, as revolutionary nationalism grew across Europe—including the Balkans —the Ottoman Empire's power declined and Greek nationalism began to assert itself, with the Greek cause beginning to draw support not only from the large Greek merchant diaspora in both Western Europe and Russia but also from Western European Philhellenes. This Greek movement for independence, was not only the first movement of national character in Eastern Europe, but also the first one in a non-Christian environment, like the Ottoman Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern Orthodoxy in Turkey</span> Overview of Eastern Orthodoxy in the Republic of Turkey

Eastern Orthodox Christianity is today the religion of only a minority in Turkey. It was once the dominant religion, during the time of the Byzantine Empire, as the region that comprises Turkey today was a central part of the Byzantine heritage. Today, less than one tenth of one percent of the population are Orthodox Christians. The provinces of Istanbul and Hatay, which includes Antakya, are the main centers of Christianity in Turkey, with comparatively dense Christian populations, though they are minorities in these areas. The traditional variant of Orthodox Christianity present in Turkey is the Eastern Orthodox branch, focused mainly in the Greek Orthodox Church.

Turco-Albanian is an ethnographic, religious, and derogatory term used by Greeks for Muslim Albanians since 1715. In a broader sense, the term included both Muslim Albanian and Turkish political and military elites of the Ottoman administration in the Balkans. The term is derived from an identification of Muslims with Ottomans and/or Turks because of the Ottoman Empire's administrative millet system of classifying peoples according to religion in which the Muslim millet played the leading role. From the mid-19th century, the term Turk and from the late 19th century onwards, the derivative term Turco-Albanian has been used as a pejorative term, phrase and or expression for Muslim Albanian individuals and communities. The term has also been noted to be unclear, ideologically and sentimentally charged, and an imperialist and racialist expression.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Janina vilayet</span> Province of the Ottoman Empire from 1867 to 1912

The Vilayet of Janina, Yanya or Ioannina was a first-level administrative division (vilayet) of the Ottoman Empire, established in 1867. In the late 19th century, it reportedly had an area of 18,320 square kilometres (7,070 sq mi). It was created by merging the Pashalik of Yanina and the Pashalik of Berat with the sanjaks of Janina, Berat, Ergiri, Preveze, Tırhala and Kesriye. Kesriye was later demoted to kaza and bounded to Monastir Vilayet and Tırhala was given to Greece in 1881.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rum millet</span> Eastern Orthodox Christian community in the Ottoman Empire

Rūm millet was the name of the Eastern Orthodox Christian community in the Ottoman Empire. Despite being subordinated within the Ottoman political system, the community maintained a certain internal autonomy.

This is a timeline of the presence of Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece. The history of Greece traditionally encompasses the study of the Greek people, the areas they ruled historically, as well as the territory now composing the modern state of Greece.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bulgarian Millet</span>

Bulgarian Millet was an ethno-religious and linguistic community within the Ottoman Empire from the mid-19th to early 20th century.

References

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  2. ↑ Stouraitis, Ioannis (2014-07-01). "Roman identity in Byzantium: a critical approach". Byzantinische Zeitschrift (in German). 107 (1): 176. doi: 10.1515/bz-2014-0009 . ISSN   1868-9027. S2CID   174769546.
  3. ↑ West, Barbara A. (19 May 2010). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. p. 829. ISBN   978-1-4381-1913-7. The first people to use the ethnonym Turk to refer to themselves were the Turuk people of the Gokturk Khanate in the mid sixth-century
  4. ↑ Qiang, Li; Kordosis, Stefanos (2018). "The Geopolitics on the Silk Road: Resurveying the Relationship of the Western Türks with Byzantium through Their Diplomatic Communications". Medieval Worlds. medieval worlds (8): 109–125. doi: 10.1553/medievalworlds_no8_2018s109 . ISSN   2412-3196.
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  6. ↑ Lars Johanson; Éva Ágnes Csató Johanson (2015). The Turkic Languages. p. 25. The name 'Seljuk is a political rather than ethnic name. It derives from Selčiik, born Toqaq Temir Yally, a war-lord (sil-baši), from the Qiniq tribal grouping of the Oghuz. Seljuk, in the rough and tumble of internal Oghuz politics, fled to Jand, c.985, after falling out with his overlord.
  7. ↑ Imber, Colin (2009). The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 6–7.
  8. ↑ Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. p. 122. That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yahşi Fakih-Aşıkpaşazade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yahşi Fakih would not have heard of it.
    • Lindner, Rudi Paul (1983). Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Indiana University Press. p. 10. In fact, no matter how one were to try, the sources simply do not allow the recovery of a family tree linking the antecedents of Osman to the Kayı of the Oğuz tribe.
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  11. ↑ World and Its Peoples . Marshall Cavendish. 2009. p. 1478. ISBN   978-0-7614-7902-4. The klephts were descendants of Greeks who fled into the mountains to avoid the Turks in the fifteenth century and who remained active as brigands into the nineteenth century.
  12. 1 2 Masters, Bruce (2006). "Christians in a changing world". In Faroqhi, Suraiya N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Turkey, Volume 3: The Late Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 272–280. ISBN   978-0-521-62095-6. LCCN   2006013835.
  13. ↑ Velev, Grigor (2004). Istoriia na bŭlgarite (1. izd ed.). Sofia: Izd-vo "Znanie". p. 23. ISBN   978-954-528-289-8. OCLC   69645946. A sultan's Firman in 1680 lists the ethnic groups on the Balkan lands as follows: Greeks (Rum), Albanians (Arnaut), Serbs (Sirf), "Vlachs" (Eflak, referring to the Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians), and Bulgarians (Bulgar).
  14. ↑ Yilmaz, Gulay (2013). The economic and social roles of janissaries in a 17th century Ottoman city: the case of Istanbul. Library and Archives Canada = Bibliothèque et Archives Canada. p. 38. ISBN   978-0-494-78718-2. OCLC   1019481205.
  15. ↑ Yilmaz, Gulay (2013). The economic and social roles of janissaries in a 17th century Ottoman city: the case of Istanbul. Library and Archives Canada = Bibliothèque et Archives Canada. p. 33. ISBN   978-0-494-78718-2. OCLC   1019481205.
  16. ↑ Yilmaz, Gulay (2013). The economic and social roles of janissaries in a 17th century Ottoman city: the case of Istanbul. Library and Archives Canada = Bibliothèque et Archives Canada. p. 30. ISBN   978-0-494-78718-2. OCLC   1019481205. According to Kavanin-i Yeni eriyan, it was forbidden to take the only son of a family, or more than one boy from the same family; and only one boy could be taken from every forty households. Uzun arşılı states that "the one in forty" application was rarely used, but the basis for his statement is unclear
  17. ↑ Hubbard, Glenn and Tim Kane. (2013). Balance: The Economics of Great Powers From Ancient Rome to Modern America. Simon & Schuster. p. 152. ISBN   978-1-4767-0025-0
  18. ↑ Zürcher, Erik (1999). Arming the State. London and New York: LB Tauris and Co. Ltd. p. 80. ISBN   1-86064-404-X.
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  20. ↑ Taxation in the Ottoman Empire
  21. ↑ Νικόλαος Φιλιππίδης (1900). Επίτομος Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους 1453–1821. Εν Αθήναις: Εκ του Τυπογραφείου Α. Καλαράκη. Ανακτήθηκε στις 23 Ιουλίου 2010.
  22. ↑ Ιωάννης Λυκούρης (1954). Η διοίκησις και δικαιοσύνη των τουρκοκρατούμενων νήσων : Αίγινα – Πόρος – Σπέτσαι – Ύδρα κλπ., επί τη βάσει εγγράφων του ιστορικού αρχείου Ύδρας και άλλων. Αθήνα. Ανακτήθηκε στις 7 Δεκεμβρίου 2010.
  23. ↑ Παναγής Σκουζές (1777–1847) (1948). Χρονικό της σκλαβωμένης Αθήνας στα χρόνια της τυρανίας του Χατζή Αλή (1774–1796). Αθήνα: Α. Κολολού. Ανακτήθηκε στις 6 Ιανουαρίου 2011.
  24. ↑ Longnon, J. 1949. Chronique de Morée: Livre de la conqueste de la princée de l'Amorée, 1204–1305. Paris.
  25. ↑ Απόστολου Βακαλόπουλου, Ιστορία του Νέου Ελληνισμού, Γ' τομ., Θεσσαλονίκη 1968
  26. ↑ Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall: Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches: Bd. 1574–1623, p. 442; note a. "Prete scorticato, la pelle sua piena di paglia portata in Constantinopoli con molte teste dei figli d'Albanesi, che avevano intelligenza colli Spagnoli"
  27. ↑ Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1991), Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century, Diane Publishing p189
  28. ↑ Finlay, George (1856). The History of Greece under Othoman and Venetian Domination. London: William Blackwood and Sons. p 210-3
  29. ↑ George Childs Kohn (Editor) Dictionary of Wars Archived 2013-11-09 at the Wayback Machine 650 pages ISBN   1-57958-204-4 ISBN   978-1-57958-204-3 Page 155
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  31. ↑ Dakin, Douglas The Greek Struggle for Independence, 1821–1833, University of California Press, (1973) pp. 26–27
  32. 1 2 Roudometof, Victor (1998). "From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453–1821" (PDF). Journal of Modern Greek Studies. 16 (1): 33. doi:10.1353/mgs.1998.0024. ISSN   1086-3265. S2CID   144013073.
  33. ↑ Roudometof, Victor (1998). "From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453–1821" (PDF). Journal of Modern Greek Studies. 16 (1): 33. doi:10.1353/mgs.1998.0024. ISSN   1086-3265. S2CID   144013073. The French Revolution, which intensified this battle between conservative and liberal Greek Orthodox elites, represented the second main source of inspiration for the new secular Greek Orthodox intelligentsia. In the 1790–1800 decade, a heated conflict broke out between conservatives and liberals during which the Church did not hesitate to condemn Godless "Franco-masonic" ideas, while proponents of "enlightened reason" accused the Church of "voluntary slavery."
  34. ↑ Zervas, Theodore G. (2010-01-01). Resurrecting the Past, Constructing the Future: A Historical Investigation on the Formation of a Greek National Identity in Schools, 1834–1913. Loyola eCommons. p. 91. OCLC   881641720.
  35. ↑ "Kemal Karpat. An Inquiry into the Social Foundations of Nationalism in the Ottoman State: From Social Estates to Classes, from Millets to Nations. (Research Monograph number 39.) Princeton: Center of International Studies, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University. 1973". The American Historical Review. 1973. doi:10.1086/ahr/80.3.695-a. ISSN   1937-5239. Cited in Roudometof, Victor (1998). "From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453-1821" (PDF). Journal of Modern Greek Studies. 16 (1): 21. doi:10.1353/mgs.1998.0024. ISSN   1086-3265. S2CID   144013073.
  36. ↑ Neoklēs, Sarris (1990). οσμανική πραγματικότητα (Osmanikē pragmatikotēta): systēmikē para-thesē domōn kai leiturgiōn. 1, To despotiko kratos. Athens: Arsenidēs. ISBN   960-253-002-2. OCLC   633532188. Cited in Roudometof, Victor (1998). "From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453-1821" (PDF). Journal of Modern Greek Studies. 16 (1): 21. doi:10.1353/mgs.1998.0024. ISSN   1086-3265. S2CID   144013073.
  37. ↑ Ilıcak, H. Şükrü (2021). "Those Infidel Greeks" (2 vols.) The Greek War of Independence through Ottoman Archival Documents. BRILL. pp. 1–30 (introduction). ISBN   978-90-04-47130-6. OCLC   1286298373. Fear of collapse and dissolution, heavy emphasis on foreign conspiracy and intervention, categorical denial of the insurgents' historical agency, the pampered "other" turning into pawns in the hands of foreign powers, a discourse of isolation in the international arena, and a feeling of victimization are the main themes that run through the documents in this book, mainstream Ottoman/Turkish historiography, and, indeed, the speeches of contemporary Turkish politicians
  38. ↑ Brewer, David The Greek War of Independence, London: Overlook Duckworth, 2011 p. 105.
  39. 1 2 Hellenic Army General Staff (1998). An index of events in the military history of the Greek nation. Athens: Army History Directorate. pp. 51, 54. ISBN   960-7897-27-7. OCLC   50662008.
  40. ↑ Woodhouse, C. M. (1977). The Philhellenes. Doric. p. 192. ISBN   0-902999-09-5. OCLC   13053581.
  41. ↑ Péchoux, Pierre-Yves (1994-01-01). "Georges Contogeorgis, Histoire de la Grèce, Paris, 1992, 479 p. / Arthur de Gobineau, Au royaume des Hellènes, 1993, 312 p." CEMOTI (17): 329–331. doi: 10.4000/cemoti.296 . ISSN   0764-9878.
  42. ↑ Marx, Karl (April 21, 1853). "What Is to Become of Turkey in Europe?". New York Tribune.
  43. ↑ Theophilus C. Prousis. Review of Macfie, A. L., The Eastern Question, 1774–1923. Habsburg, H-Net Reviews. December, 1996.
  44. ↑ Mateos, Natalia Ribas. The Mediterranean in the Age of Globalization: Migration, Welfare & Borders. Transaction Publishers. ISBN   978-1-4128-3775-0.
  45. ↑ Roumen Daskalov, Tchavdar Marinov, Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies; Brill, 2013; ISBN   90-04-25076-X, p. 200.
  46. ↑ "European Election Database – Background – Greece". o.nsd.no. Archived from the original on 2021-04-22. Retrieved 2022-05-16.
  47. ↑ Grigoriadis, Ioannis N. (2011). "Redefining the Nation: Shifting Boundaries of the 'Other' in Greece and Turkey". Middle Eastern Studies. 47 (1): 169–170. doi:10.1080/00263206.2011.536632. hdl: 11693/11995 . ISSN   0026-3206. JSTOR   27920347. S2CID   44340675.
  48. ↑ Κρεμμυδας, Βασιλης (2010). Η μεγάλη ιδέα: μεταμορφώσεις ενός εθνικού ιδεολογήματος. Ekdoseis Typōthētō. pp. 38–39. ISBN   978-960-402-374-5. OCLC   681904431. cited in Kaldellis, Anthony (2022). "From "Empire of the Greeks" to "Byzantium"". In Ransohoff, Jake; Aschenbrenner, Nathanael (eds.). The Invention of Byzantium in Early Modern Europe. Harvard University Press. p. 360. ISBN   978-0-88402-484-2.
  49. ↑ Anderson and Hershey, pp. 439-440
  50. ↑ Petsalis-Diomidis, Nicholas. Greece at the Paris Peace Conference/1919. Inst. for Balkan Studies, 1978.
  51. ↑ Grigoriadis, Ioannis N. (2011). "Redefining the Nation: Shifting Boundaries of the 'Other' in Greece and Turkey". Middle Eastern Studies. 47 (1): 175. doi:10.1080/00263206.2011.536632. hdl: 11693/11995 . ISSN   0026-3206. JSTOR   27920347. S2CID   44340675.
  52. ↑ Toynbee, Arnold J; Kirkwood, Kenneth P (1926), Turkey, London: Ernest Benn, p. 94.
  53. ↑ Giles Milton, Paradise Lost, 2008, Sceptre, ISBN   978-0-340-83786-3
  54. ↑ Tung, Anthony (2001). "The City the Gods Besieged". Preserving the World's Great Cities: The Destruction and Renewal of the Historic Metropolis. New York: Three Rivers Press. p. 266. ISBN   0-609-80815-X, the same source depicts a table with Athens having a population of 123,000 in 1896
  55. ↑ Pentzopoulos, Dimitri (2002). The Balkan Exchange of Minorities and Its Impact on Greece. C. Hurst & Co. pp. 29–30. ISBN   978-1-85065-702-6
  56. ↑ Axiarlis, Evangelia (2014). Political Islam and the Secular State in Turkey: Democracy, Reform and the Justice and Development Party. I.B. Tauris. p. 11.
  57. ↑ Clogg, Richard (2002). A Concise History of Greece. Cambridge University Press. p. 101. ISBN   978-0-521-00479-4 . Retrieved 9 February 2013.
  58. ↑ Alexandris, Alexis (1980). Imbros and Tenedos: A Study of Turkish Attitudes Toward Two Ethnic Greek Island Communities Since 1923 (PDF). Pella. p. 21. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 22, 2015.
  59. ↑ Meichanetsidis, Vasileios (2015). "The Genocide of the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire, 1913–1923: A Comprehensive Overview". Genocide Studies International. 9 (1): 104–173. doi:10.3138/gsi.9.1.06. ISSN   2291-1847. S2CID   154870709. The genocide was committed by two subsequent and chronologically, ideologically, and organically interrelated and interconnected dictatorial and chauvinist regimes: (1) the regime of the CUP, under the notorious triumvirate of the three pashas (Üç Paşalar), Talât, Enver, and Cemal, and (2) the rebel government at Samsun and Ankara, under the authority of the Grand National Assembly (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) and Kemal. Although the process had begun before the Balkan Wars, the final and most decisive period started immediately after WWI and ended with the almost total destruction of the Pontic Greeks
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