Thereafter and throughout the early modern period, Georgians became politically fractured and were locked in conflict with much larger Muslim empires to its south, like the Ottoman Empire and successive dynasties of Iran. Georgians started looking for allies and found the Russians on the political horizon as a possible replacement for the lost Byzantine Empire "for the sake of the Christian faith".[15] The Georgian kings and Russian tsars exchanged no less than 17 embassies,[16] culminating in 1783 when Heraclius II of the eastern Georgian kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti forged an alliance with the Russian Empire. However, the Russo-Georgian alliance backfired as Russia was unwilling to fulfill the terms of the treaty, proceeding to annex Georgia in a piecemeal manner throughout the 1800s.[17][18] Georgians reasserted their independence from Russia under the First Georgian Republic from 1918 to 1921 and finally in 1991 from the Soviet Union.
The Georgian nation was formed out of a diverse set of geographic subgroups, each with its characteristic traditions, manners, dialects and, in the case of Svans and Mingrelians, own regional languages. The Georgian language, with its own unique writing system and extensive written tradition, which goes back to the 5th century, is the official language of Georgia as well as the language of education of all Georgians living in the country. According to the State Ministry on Diaspora Issues of Georgia, unofficial statistics say that there are more than 5 million Georgians in the world.[19]
An exonymic term "Georgian" resulted from the merger of Persian designation "gurğ" (wolf), with the cult of Saint George popular among the Georgians.[20] The saint's name played a definite role in the transformation of "gurğ/gorg" into "Georgia/Georgian".[21] The earliest known example for an endonym"kartveli"[d] (ႵႠႰႧႥႤႪႨ) was found as an archaeological artifact in the neighborhood of Umm Leisun, nearby Jerusalem.[22]
Georgians call themselves Kartveli[d] (ქართველი, pl.Kartvelebiქართველები), their land Sakartvelo (საქართველო), and their language Kartuli (ქართული).[26] According to The Georgian Chronicles, the ancestor of the Kartvelian people was Kartlos, the great-grandson of the BiblicalJapheth. However, scholars agree that the word is derived from the Karts, the latter being one of the proto-Georgian tribes that emerged as a dominant group in ancient times.[27]Kart probably is cognate with Indo-European gard and denotes people who live in a "fortified citadel".[28]Ancient Greeks (Homer, Herodotus, Strabo, Plutarch etc.) and Romans (Titus Livius, Cornelius Tacitus, etc.) referred to western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians.[29]
The term "Georgians" is derived from the country of Georgia. In the past, lore-based theories were given by the medieval French traveller Jacques de Vitry, who explained the name's origin by the popularity of St. George amongst Georgians,[30] while traveller Jean Chardin thought that "Georgia" came from Greek γεωργός ("tiller of the land"), as when the Greeks came into the region (in Colchis[27]) they encountered a developed agricultural society.[27]
However, as Alexander Mikaberidze adds, these explanations for the word Georgians/Georgia are rejected by the scholarly community, who point to the Persian word gurğ/gurğān ("wolf"[31]) as the root of the word.[32] Starting with the Persian word gurğ/gurğān, the word was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages.[27][33] This term itself might have been established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region, which was referred to as Gorgan ("land of the wolves"[34]).[27]
Most historians, as well as anthropologists, archaeologists, and linguists, agree that the ancestors of modern Georgians inhabited the southern Caucasus and northern Anatolia since the Neolithic period.[35] These peoples are usually referred to as Proto-Kartvelian tribes, including early groups such as Colchians and Iberians.[36]
In antiquity, the ancient Greeks and Romans knew the Georgian peoples as Colchians and Iberians.[37] Eastern Georgian tribes (Tibarenians/Iberians) formed their kingdom in the 7th century BCE, while western Georgian tribes (Colchians) established the kingdom of Colchis (c.1350 BCE), predating the foundation of Kingdom of Iberia in the east.[38][39]
The formation of these early kingdoms contributed to the consolidation of the Georgian nation.[40] The Jewish historian Josephus mentions Georgians as Iberes, also called Thobel (Tubal).[36]David Marshall Lang argued that the root Tibar gave rise to Iber, leading the Greeks to use the term Iberian for eastern Georgians.[41]
Tribes such as Diauehi (in Assyria) and Taochi (in Greek sources) lived in northeastern Anatolia and are considered ancestors of the Georgians.[42] Modern Georgians still refer to this region as Tao-Klarjeti, part of present-day Turkey, where some Georgian-speaking communities persist.[43]
Colchians, first mentioned in the annals of Tiglath-Pileser I and Urartian king Sarduri II, included western Georgian tribes such as the Meskhetians, while Iberians (or Tiberians/Tiberanians) lived in eastern Georgia.[44] Both played a crucial role in the ethnic and cultural formation of the Georgian nation.[45] According to the scholar of the Caucasian studies Cyril Toumanoff:
Colchis appears as the first Caucasian state to have achieved the coalescence of the newcomer. Colchis can be justly regarded as a Georgian (West Georgian) kingdom… It would seem natural to seek the beginnings of Georgian social history in Colchis, the earliest Georgian formation.[46]
In eastern Georgia, during the 6th–4th centuries BCE, Kartlian tribes consolidated power around Mtskheta, founding the Kingdom of Kartli (Iberia) under Pharnavaz I and establishing the Parnavazid dynasty.[47]
Colchis later became the Roman province of Lazicum under Roman legati, while Iberia accepted Roman protection. By the 3rd century CE, the Laz people established the kingdom of Lazica (Egrisi), lasting until 562 CE.[48]
The Kingdom of Iberia adopted Christianity under King Mirian III (traditionally 324), with St. Nino credited for the conversion.[49][50] By the mid-4th century, both Lazica and Iberia were officially Christian, aligning with Byzantine Empire culture. Persian rule later introduced Zoroastrianism alongside Christianity in some regions.[51]
King Vakhtang I Gorgasali restored Iberian statehood and promoted independence, though subsequent rulers were sometimes Persian vassals, and the kingdom was occasionally governed by Marzban. By the late 7th century, Byzantine-Persian rivalry declined, paving the way for Arab conquest.[52]
The decline of centralized authority created conditions for the rise of the Bagrationi dynasty in the 9th century. Ashot I (r. 813–830) consolidated power in Tao-Klarjeti and extended his influence over Iberia, earning recognition from both the Abbasid Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire. Later, Adarnase IV succeeded in unifying most Georgian territories and was crowned King of the Iberians in 888.[55]
In western Georgia, the Kingdom of Abkhazia gradually unified local tribes during the 8th century and expanded into Iberia in the 9th–10th centuries.[56] However, persistent dynastic disputes, rival noble factions, and internal instability gradually weakened the Abkhazian monarchy.
Meanwhile, in southern Georgia, David III of Tao emerged as a dominant regional ruler, advocating for the political unification of Georgian territories. Recognizing the potential for consolidation, he supported the young Bagrat III, who held hereditary claims to multiple Georgian thrones.[57] Through a combination of military campaigns, diplomatic alliances, and dynastic legitimacy, Bagrat III successfully unified the principal Georgian polities. In 1008, he was crowned as the first king of a unified Georgia, marking the establishment of a consolidated Georgian state that would later achieve significant cultural and political prominence.[57]
During the 11th century, Georgia faced internal noble conflicts and Byzantine interference, but both the Georgian and Byzantine states opposed the expansion of the Seljuk Empire. After the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Georgia assumed control over eastern Anatolia and led military campaigns against Turkish forces throughout the 1080s.
Georgia reached its political and cultural zenith in the 12th and early 13th centuries under the reigns of David IV (r. 1089–1125) and Tamar (r. 1184–1213), a period commonly referred to as the Georgian Golden Age.[58][59][60][61]
Tamar further strengthened the Georgian state, earning the title of "king of kings". She neutralized internal opposition, expanded Georgian territories into present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia, eastern Turkey, and northern Iran, and established the Empire of Trebizond as a vassal state.[63]
The decline of the Georgian kingdom began after Jalal ad-Din captured Tbilisi in 1226,[64] followed by the Mongol invasions. George V the Brilliant (r. 1314–1346) later restored political unity and revitalized Christian culture. However, subsequent Timurid invasions and persistent internal conflicts hindered full consolidation of the kingdom, ultimately contributing to its fragmentation in the 15th century.[65]
The Kingdom of Georgia collapsed into anarchy by 1466 and fragmented into three independent kingdoms and five semi-independent principalities. Neighboring empires exploited this division, and from the 16th century, Ottoman and Iranian forces dominated western and eastern Georgia, respectively.[66] Georgian rulers sought ties with Russia: in 1649, the Kingdom of Imereti sent ambassadors, and Alexander III of Imereti swore allegiance to Tsar Alexis of Russia.[67] Subsequent rulers also sought assistance from Pope Innocent XII but without success.[68]
In 1783, the Treaty of Georgievsk made Eastern Georgia a Russian protectorate, guaranteeing the Bagrationi dynasty’s rule in exchange for Russian control over foreign affairs.[71]
Russia failed to defend Georgia in 1795 when Iran sacked Tbilisi.[72] Although Russia launched a punitive campaign, it later annexed Eastern Georgia in 1801, abolished the Bagrationi dynasty, and ended the autocephaly of the Georgian Orthodox Church. Pyotr Bagration, a Bagrationi descendant, later became a prominent Russian general in the Napoleonic wars.[73]
Modern history
19th century Georgian noble family: General Solomon Makashvili and family around 1900
Russian authorities sought to integrate Georgia into their empire, but early rule was arbitrary and insensitive to local laws and customs, provoking a conspiracy by Georgian nobles in 1832 and the 1841 Gurian revolt by peasants and nobles.[74]
Many Georgians were upset by the loss of independence of the Georgian Orthodox Church. The Russian clergy took control of Georgian churches and monasteries, prohibiting use of the Georgian liturgy and desecrating medieval Georgian frescoes on various churches all across Georgia.[75]
The late 19th century saw a Georgian literary revival. Chavchavadze excelled in poetry, novels, short stories, and essays. Akaki Tsereteli became known as "the immortal nightingale of the Georgian people." Alongside Niko Nikoladze and Iakob Gogebashvili, these figures were central to the modern Georgian cultural renaissance.
In October 1990, the first multi-party elections were held in Soviet Georgia, which were the first multi-party elections in the entire Soviet Union in which the opposition groups were registered as formal political parties.[79] The Round Table—Free Georgia coalition, led by Zviad Gamsakhurdia, secured victory in this election and formed a new government. On 9 April 1991, shortly before the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Supreme Council of Georgia declared independence[ka] after a referendum held on 31 March.[80]
An FTDNA collection of Georgian Y-DNA suggests that Georgians have the highest percentage of Haplogroup G (39.9%) among the general population recorded in any country. Georgians' Y-DNA also belongs to Haplogroup J (32.5%), R1b (8.6%), L (5.4%), R1a (4.2%), I2 (3.8%) and other more minor haplogroups such as E, T, and Q.[81]
Georgian is the primary language for Georgians of all backgrounds, including those who speak other Kartvelian languages: Svans, Mingrelians, and the Laz. The language known today as Georgian is a traditional language of the eastern part of the country, which spread to most of present-day Georgia after the post-Christianization centralization in the first millennium CE. Today, Georgians, regardless of their ancestral region, use Georgian as their official language. The regional languages Svan and Mingrelian are languages of the west that were traditionally spoken in the pre-Christian Kingdom of Colchis but later lost importance as the unified Kingdom of Georgia emerged. Their decline is largely due to the capital of the unified kingdom, Tbilisi, being in the eastern part of the country known as the Kingdom of Iberia, effectively making the language of the east the official language of the Georgian monarch.
Gelati Monastery, one of the most significant religious structures in Georgia, located near the former capital city of Kutaisi.
According to Orthodox tradition, Christianity was first preached in Georgia by the Apostles Simon and Andrew in the 1st century. It became the state religion of Kartli (Iberia) in 319[83] or 326.[84][85][86][87] At the same time, in the first centuries A.D., the cult of Mithras, pagan beliefs, and Zoroastrianism were commonly practiced in Georgia.[88] The conversion of Kartli to Christianity is credited to St. Nino of Cappadocia. Christianity gradually replaced all the former religions except Zoroastrianism, which become a second established religion in Iberia after the Peace of Acilisene in 378.[89] The conversion to Christianity eventually placed the Georgians permanently on the front line of conflict between the Islamic and Christian world. Georgians remained mostly Christian despite repeated invasions by Muslim powers, and long episodes of foreign domination.
As was true elsewhere, the Christian church in Georgia was crucial to the development of a written language, and most of the earliest written works were religious texts. Medieval Georgian culture was greatly influenced by Eastern Orthodoxy and the Georgian Orthodox Church, which promoted and often sponsored the creation of many works of religious devotion. These included churches and monasteries, works of art such as icons, and hagiographies of Georgian saints.
Today, 83.9% of the Georgian population, most of whom are ethnic Georgian, follow Eastern Orthodox Christianity.[90] A sizable Georgian Muslim population exists in Adjara. This autonomous Republic borders Turkey, and was part of the Ottoman Empire for a longer amount of time than other parts of the country. Those Georgian Muslims practice the Sunni Hanafi form of Islam. Islam has however declined in Adjara during the 20th century, due to Soviet anti-religious policies, cultural integration with the national Orthodox majority, and strong missionary efforts by the Georgian Orthodox Church.[91] In the early modern period, converted Georgian recruits were often used by the Persian and Ottoman Empires for elite military units such as the Mameluks, Qizilbash, and ghulams. The Iranian Georgians are all reportedly Shia Muslims today, while Ingiloy (indigenous to Azerbaijan), Laz (indigenous to Turkey), Imerkhevians (indigenous to Turkey), and Georgians in Turkey (who descend from Georgian immigrants) are mostly Sunni Muslim.
In addition to traditional religious confessions, Georgia retains irreligious segments of society, as well as a significant portion of nominally religious individuals who do not actively practice their faith.[92]
The Georgian cuisine is specific to the country; however, it also contains some influences from other European culinary traditions, as well as those from the surrounding Western Asia. Each historical province of Georgia has its own distinct culinary tradition, such as Megrelian, Kakhetian, and Imeretian cuisines. In addition to various meat dishes, Georgian cuisine also offers a variety of vegetarian meals.
The importance of both food and drink to Georgian culture is best observed during a Caucasian feast, or supra, when a huge assortment of dishes is prepared, always accompanied by large amounts of wine, and dinner can last for hours. In a Georgian feast, the role of the tamada (toastmaster) is an important and honoured position.
In countries of the former Soviet Union, Georgian food is popular due to the immigration of Georgians to other Soviet republics, in particular Russia. In Russia all major cities have many Georgian restaurants and Russian restaurants often feature Georgian food items on their menu.[93]
Georgia has a long-established tradition of polyphonic singing, often regarded as one of the earliest polyphonic cultures in the Christian world. The country’s folk repertoire is usually divided into fifteen or sixteen regional musical dialects.[94] In eastern Georgia (Kartli, Kakheti, Mtiuleti) table songs typically feature a sustained drone in the bass with two ornamented upper voices; the best-known example is "Chakrulo". Western regions (Imereti, Svaneti, Racha, Mingrelia, Guria, Adjara) preserve various forms of contrapuntal polyphony. Gurian singing is noted for its highly developed three- and four-part textures and the characteristic Krimanchuli, a local variety of yodeling.[95]
Georgian scale systems often rely on combinations of perfect fourths and fifths,[100] producing interval structures that diverge from Western equal temperament. Non-tempered intonation has survived most consistently in Svaneti.
From early gramophone recordings preserved by Anzor Erkomaishvili to the emergence of large Soviet-era choirs and postwar ensembles such as Rustavi and Georgian Voices, Georgian polyphony has gained international visibility. From the 1960s onward, groups like Orera, and later The Shin, incorporated traditional material into popular and jazz-influenced idioms.[101]
The folk dances of the Georgian people have an ancient history, as evidenced by numerous historical sources and archaeological findings.[104]
Georgian tribes inhabited the eastern part of the Black Sea coast several centuries before the adoption of Christianity. The works of the ancient Greek geographer Strabo contain vivid descriptions of the pagan rituals of the Georgians, which included elements of dance. The arrival of Christianity introduced significant changes into the life of the population; however, many rituals were preserved and adapted to the new religion. Within these rituals, dance gradually assumed a leading role, while the religious content diminished. In this way, Georgian dances developed into an integral element of folk artistic culture.[104]
It is known that by the 4th century BCE, secular music was widespread among Georgian tribes. The Colchian tribes began their battles with martial songs and dances.[104]
During the medieval period, dance became increasingly professionalized, and performances were frequently held in the palaces of kings and feudal lords. At this time, solo and paired dances underwent significant development, and canonical dance movements became firmly established.[105]
Georgian dance employs several means of self-expression. Young men seek to demonstrate strength, agility, and bravery. Male choreography is characterized by sharp and vigorous movements, including turns, leaps, jumps, and steps performed on the toes or knees. In contrast, the female dance is distinguished by smoothness and grace.[106]
In the 9th and 10th centuries, Christian theological literature flourished alongside a growing sense of Georgian national identity, exemplified by "Praise and Exaltation of the Georgian Language" by John Zosimus.[107]
David IV's unification of Georgia in the 11th century marked a golden age for culture. Byzantine-influenced Christian literature thrived, and secular literature emerged, drawing on Georgian folklore as well as Persian and Arabic traditions.[107] Heroic epics, love tales, and knightly adventures became prominent, with poetry as the dominant form.[107]
The reign of Queen Tamar (AD 1184-1213) marked the pinnacle of medieval Georgian literature. This period witnessed a flourishing of literary production, with Shota Rustaveli's epic poem, "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" (Vepkhistqaosani), emerging as a masterpiece.[107] Considered one of the most significant works of Georgian literature,[109] the poem narrates the adventures of Avtandil, a knight sent by Queen Tinatin on a quest to find another mysterious knight. The story unfolds with twists, culminating in a double wedding.[107]
Following Queen Tamar's reign, Georgia's political fragmentation and foreign invasions led to a decline in literary output.[107]
This vibrant literary activity was interrupted by the Stalinist purges of the 1930s, which silenced many writers who were unwilling to conform to socialist realism.[107]
The Georgians have historically been classified into various subgroups based on the geographic region which their ancestors traditionally inhabited.
Even if a member of any of these subgroups moves to a different region, they will still be known by the name of their ancestral region. For example, if a Gurian moves to Tbilisi (part of the Kartli region) he will not automatically identify himself as Kartlian despite actually living in Kartli. This may, however, change if substantial amount of time passes. For example, there are some Mingrelians who have lived in the Imereti region for centuries and are now identified as Imeretian or Imeretian-Mingrelians.
Last names from mountainous eastern Georgian provinces (such as Khevsureti, etc.) can be distinguished by the suffix –uri (ური), or –uli (ული). Most Svan last names typically end in –ani (ანი), Mingrelian in –ia (ია), -ua (უა), or -ava (ავა), and Laz in –shi (ში).
The 1897 Russian census (which accounted people by language), had Imeretian, Svan and Mingrelian languages separate from Georgian.[112] During the 1926 Soviet census, Svans and Mingrelians were accounted separately from Georgian.[113] Svan and Mingrelian languages are both Kartvelian languages and are closely related to the national Georgian language.
Laz people also may be considered Georgian based on their geographic location and religion. According to the London School of Economics' anthropologist Mathijs Pelkmans,[114] Lazs residing in Georgia frequently identify themselves as "first-class Georgians" to show pride, while considering their Muslim counterparts in Turkey as "Turkified Lazs".[115]
Subethnic groups
Georgian name
Settlement area
Language (dialect)
Number
Difference(s) from mainstream Georgians (other than location)
↑The fresco was a demonstration of the ambitious imperial[1] example on which the Georgian monarchs modeled themselves and competed in magnificence with those of Byzantine Empire.[2]
↑The total figure is merely an estimation; sum of all the referenced populations only.
123The term Kartveli, derived from Old GeorgianKartueli (ႵႠႰႧႭႳႤႪႨ), originally designated inhabitants of the Kingdom of Iberia and were natively known as Kartvelians,[23] that stood at the political, cultural, religious and economic vanguard of the nation. Kartvelians, tracing their definitive appearance since post-Assyrian times, gradually became a dominant element in nation-building that would give its name to the whole country and people.[24] After the Georgian unification, the term would come to signify all-Georgian enterprise, becoming absolute and universal.[25]
↑Tchekhanovets, Y. (2014). Iohane, bishop of Purtavi and Caucasian Albanians in the Holy Land. In G. C. Bottini, L. D. Chrupcała, & J. Patrich (Eds.), Knowledge and Wisdom: Archaeological and Historical Essays in Honour of Leah Di Segni (Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Collectio Maior; Vol. 54). Edizioni Terra Santa, p. 305, ISBN978-88-6240-274-3
↑Peradze, Gregory. "The Pilgrims' derivation of the name Georgia". Georgica, Autumn, 1937, nos. 4 & 5, 208–209
↑Hock, Hans Henrich; Zgusta, Ladislav (1997). Historical, Indo-European, and Lexicographical Studies. Walter de Gruyter. p.211. ISBN978-3-11-012884-0.
↑Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia (2ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p.3. ISBN978-1-4422-4146-6. However, such explanations are rejected by the scholarly community, who point to the Persian gurğ/gurğān as the root of the word (...)
↑Boeder; etal. (2002). Philology, typology and language structure. Peter Lang. p.65. ISBN978-0-8204-5991-2. The Russian designation of Georgia (Gruziya) also derives from the Persian gurg.
↑Ivana Marková; Alex Gillespie, eds. (2011). Trust and Conflict: Representation, Culture and Dialogue. Cultural Dynamics of Social Representation. p.43. ISBN978-0-415-59346-5.
↑Howard Aronson; Dodona Kiziria (1999). Georgian Literature and Culture. Slavica. p.119. ISBN978-0-89357-278-5.
↑Suny, Ronald Grigor (1996). Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. DIANE Publishing. p.184. ISBN978-0-7881-2813-4. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2017. The Knight in the Panther Skin occupies a unique position as the Georgian national epic.
↑Tsintsadze, I. (1970). ტოლჩანოვის იმერეთში ელჩობის მუხლობრივი აღწერილობა, 1650–1652[Notarial Account of Tolochanov’s Ambassadorship in Imereti, 1650–1652] (in Georgian). Tbilisi. pp.37–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
↑Sharadze, Guram (1984). ბედნიერებისა და სათნოების საუნჯე[Treasure of Happiness and Virtue] (in Georgian). Tbilisi: Soviets’ Georgia Publishing House. pp.436–437.
↑Jaoshvili, Vakhtang (1984). საქართველოს მოსახლეობა XVIII–XX საუკუნეებში: დემოგრაფიულ-გეოგრაფიული გამოკვლევა[The Population of Georgia in the 18th–20th Centuries: A Demographic-Geographical Study] (in Georgian) (1sted.). Mecniereba. p.72.
↑Darrell Slider (1991). "Georgia's independence". Problems of Communism: November—December 1991. Vol.15. Documentary Studies Section, International Information Administration. p.66. The April 9 "Tragedy", as it came to be called, had a searing effect on Georgian public. The republic leadership lost what authority it had enjoyed in the eyes of Georgians, and support for independence became overwhelming— developments confirmed by polls initiated by the Communist leadership itself.
↑Tuite, Kevin (1987). "The geography of Georgian q'e"(PDF). Proceedings of the International Conference on Caucasian Studies. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
↑Sauter, Simonia, Stephenson, Orchiston (2014). Historical Astronomy of the Caucasus: Sources from Georgia and Armenia. p.114.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑Thomas Liles, "Islam and religious transformation in Adjara", ECMI Working Paper, February 2012, Archived 5 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine , accessed 4 June 2012
↑Garakanidze, Edisher (1991). Musical Dialects of Georgian Traditional Music. PhD dissertation, Tbilisi Theatrical Institute.
↑Arakishvili, Dimitri (1908). West Georgian Folk Songs. Moscow: Commission of Music and Ethnography. (in Russian)
↑Javakhishvili, Ivane (2010). "The Views and Theories of Georgian Authors". In: Rusudan Tsurtsumia & Joseph Jordania (eds.), Echoes from Georgia: Seventeen Arguments on Georgian Polyphony, pp. 19–34. New York: Nova Science.
↑Arakishvili, Dimitri (1905). Short Review of the Development of Georgian (Kartlian and Kakhetian) Folk Songs. Moscow: K. Menshov. (in Russian)
↑"არამატერიალური კულტურული მემკვიდრეობა"[Intangible Cultural Heritage](PDF) (in Georgian). National Agency for Cultural Heritage Preservation of Georgia. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
↑Gogotishvili, Vladimer (2010). "On Authentic and Plagal Types of Monotonic Scales in Georgian Traditional Vocal Polyphony". In: Tsurtsumia & Jordania (eds.), Echoes from Georgia, pp. 147–156.
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