The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic,also known as Soviet Armenia,or simply Armenia,was one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union,located in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Soviet Armenia bordered the Soviet Republics of Azerbaijan and Georgia and the independent states of Iran and Turkey. The capital of the republic was Yerevan and it contained thirty-seven districts (raions). Other major cities in the ArmSSR included Leninakan,Kirovakan,Hrazdan,Etchmiadzin,and Kapan. The republic was governed by Communist Party of Armenia,a branch of the main Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
From 1930 to 1952,the government of the Soviet Union,on the orders of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin under the direction of the NKVD official Lavrentiy Beria,forcibly transferred populations of various groups. These actions may be classified into the following broad categories:deportations of "anti-Soviet" categories of population,deportations of entire nationalities,labor force transfer,and organized migrations in opposite directions to fill ethnically cleansed territories. Dekulakization marked the first time that an entire class was deported,whereas the deportation of Soviet Koreans in 1937 marked the precedent of a specific ethnic deportation of an entire nationality.
Korenizatsiia was an early policy of the Soviet Union for the integration of non-Russian nationalities into the governments of their specific Soviet republics. In the 1920s,the policy promoted representatives of the titular nation,and their national minorities,into the lower administrative levels of the local government,bureaucracy,and nomenklatura of their Soviet republics. The main idea of the korenizatsiia was to grow communist cadres for every nationality. In Russian,the term korenizatsiya (коренизация) derives from korennoye naseleniye. The policy practically ended in the mid-1930s with the deportations of various nationalities.
Norman M. Naimark is an American historian. He is the Robert and Florence McDonnell Professor of Eastern European Studies at Stanford University,and a senior fellow at the Hoover Institution. He writes on modern Eastern European history,genocide,and ethnic cleansing in the region.
Russian nationalism is a form of nationalism that promotes Russian cultural identity and unity. Russian nationalism first rose to prominence as a Pan-Slavic enterprise during the 19th century Russian Empire,and was repressed during the early Bolshevik rule. Russian nationalism was briefly revived through the policies of Joseph Stalin during and after the Second World War,which shared many resemblances with the worldview of early Eurasianist ideologues.
The Georgian affair of 1922 was a political conflict within the Soviet leadership about the way in which social and political transformation was to be achieved in the Georgian SSR. The dispute over Georgia,which arose shortly after the forcible Sovietization of the country and peaked in the latter part of 1922,involved local Georgian Bolshevik leaders,led by Filipp Makharadze and Budu Mdivani,on one hand,and their de facto superiors from the Russian SFSR,particularly Joseph Stalin and Grigol Ordzhonikidze,on the other hand. The content of this dispute was complex,involving the Georgians' desire to preserve autonomy from Moscow and the differing interpretations of Bolshevik nationality policies,and especially those specific to Georgia. One of the main points at issue was Moscow's decision to amalgamate Georgia,Armenia and Azerbaijan into Transcaucasian SFSR,a move that was staunchly opposed by the Georgian leaders who urged for their republic a full-member status within the Soviet Union.
Armenian nationalism in the modern period has its roots in the romantic nationalism of Mikayel Chamchian (1738–1823) and generally defined as the creation of a free,independent and united Armenia formulated as the Armenian Cause. Armenian national awakening developed in the 1880s in the context of the general rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire. The Russian Armenia followed with significant causes. The Armenian Apostolic Church has been a great defender of Armenian nationalism,with leaders like Khrimian Hayrik who devoted his life to the peasantry. The establishment of modern Armenia (1991) and Armenian social fabric becoming more complex gradually decrease the political influence of Hye Dat and shifted towards a modern Armenian nationalism modeled as a liberal nationalism.
Azerbaijani nationalism,also referred to as Azerbaijanism,started out as a cultural movement among Azerbaijani intellectuals within the Russian Empire during the second half of the 19th century. While initially cultural in nature,it was later developed further into a political ideology which culminated in the establishment of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918.
Sheila Mary Fitzpatrick is an Australian historian,whose main subjects are history of the Soviet Union and history of modern Russia,especially the Stalin era and the Great Purges,of which she proposes a "history from below",and is part of the "revisionist school" of Communist historiography. She has also critically reviewed the concept of totalitarianism and highlighted the differences between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in debates about comparison of Nazism and Stalinism.
In 1932–1933,a man-made famine,known as the Holodomor,killed 3.3–5 million people in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic,included in a total of 5.5–8.7 million killed by the broader Soviet famine of 1930–1933. At least 3.3 million ethnic Ukrainians died as a result of the famine in the USSR. Scholars debate whether there was an intent to starve millions of Ukrainians to death or not.
The Georgian Socialist-Federalist Revolutionary Party was a Georgian nationalist party,founded in April 1904. The party's program demanded the national autonomy of Georgia,within the framework of a Russian federal state,and advocated for a democratic socialist system. Mainly based in the rural areas,the party's membership was almost entirely drawn from the peasantry and the petty gentry. The political profile of the party had an appeal amongst moderately nationalist intellectuals,schoolteachers and students. The party strived that agricultural issues not be decided by central authorities,but by autonomous national institutions. The party published the periodical Sakartvelo.
Mass deportation of Azerbaijanis from Armenia took place several times throughout the 20th century,and sometimes some of them have been described by some authors as acts of forced resettlement and ethnic cleansing.
Marxism and the National Question is a short work of Marxist theory written by Joseph Stalin in January 1913 while living in Vienna. First published as a pamphlet and frequently reprinted,the essay by the ethnic Georgian Stalin was regarded as a seminal contribution to Marxist analysis of the nature of nationality and helped to establish his reputation as an expert on the topic. Stalin would later become the first People's Commissar of Nationalities following the victory of the Bolshevik Party in the October Revolution of 1917.
Soviet leaders and authorities officially condemned nationalism and proclaimed internationalism,including the right of nations and peoples to self-determination. The Soviet Union claimed to be supportive of self-determination and rights of many minorities and colonized peoples. However,it significantly marginalized people of certain ethnic groups designated as "enemies of the people",pushed their assimilation,and promoted chauvinistic Russian nationalistic and settler-colonialist activities in their lands. Whereas Vladimir Lenin had supported and implemented policies of korenization,Joseph Stalin reversed much of the previous policies,signing off on orders to deport and exile multiple ethnic-linguistic groups brandished as "traitors to the Fatherland",including the Balkars,Crimean Tatars,Chechens,Ingush,Karachays,Kalmyks,Koreans and Meskhetian Turks,with those,who survived the collective deportation to Siberia or Central Asia,were legally designated "special settlers",meaning that they were officially second-class citizens with few rights and were confined within small perimeters. After the death of Stalin,Nikita Khrushchev criticized the deportations based on ethnicity in a secret section of his report to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union,describing them as "rude violations of the basic Leninist principles of the nationality policy of the Soviet state". Soon thereafter,in the mid- to late 1950s,some deported peoples were fully rehabilitated,having been allowed the full right of return,and their national republics were restored —except for the Koreans,Crimean Tatars,and Meskhetian Turks,who were not granted the right of return and were instead forced to stay in Central Asia. The government subsequently took a variety of measures to prevent such deported peoples from returning to their native villages,ranging from denying residence permits to people of certain ethnic groups in specific areas,referring to people by incorrect ethnonyms to minimize ties to their homeland,arresting protesters for requesting the right of return and spreading racist propaganda demonizing ethnic minorities.
This is a select bibliography of post-World War II English language books and journal articles about the Revolutionary and Civil War era of Russian (Soviet) history. The sections "General surveys" and "Biographies" contain books;other sections contain both books and journal articles. Book entries may have references to reviews published in English language academic journals or major newspapers when these could be considered helpful. Additional bibliographies can be found in many of the book-length works listed below;see Further reading for several book and chapter length bibliographies. The External links section contains entries for publicly available select bibliographies from universities.
This is a select bibliography of post-World War II English-language books and journal articles about Stalinism and the Stalinist era of Soviet history. Book entries have references to journal reviews about them when helpful and available. Additional bibliographies can be found in many of the book-length works listed below.
Anarchism in Georgia began to emerge during the late 19th century out of the Georgian national liberation movement and the Russian nihilist movement. It reached its apex during the 1905 Russian Revolution,after a number of anarchists returned from exile to participate in revolutionary activities,such as in the newly-established Gurian Republic.
Anarchism in Armenia emerged as part of the Armenian national liberation movement,with its roots in various heretical Christian sects that practiced in the region. It took on an organized form with the establishment of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation in 1890,before being suppressed by the various empires and authoritarian regimes that ruled over Armenia during the 20th century. It eventually re-emerged in the 21st century,as part of the anti-establishment movement that spread throughout the country in the wake of its independence.
Differing views of what caused the Armenian genocide include explanations focusing on nationalism,religion,and wartime radicalization and continue to be debated among scholars. In the twenty-first century,focus has shifted to multicausal explanations. Most historians agree that the genocide was not premeditated before World War I,but the role of contingency,ideology,and long-term structural factors in causing the genocide continues to be discussed.
This is a select bibliography of English language books and journal articles about the history of the Caucasus. A brief selection of English translations of primary sources is included. Book entries have references to journal articles and reviews about them when helpful. Additional bibliographies can be found in many of the book-length works listed below. The External links section contains entries for publicly available select bibliographies from universities. This bibliography specifically excludes non-history related works and self-published books.
