Gryllus pennsylvanicus

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Gryllus pennsylvanicus
Gryllus pennsylvanicus male 01.jpg
A male Gryllus pennsylvanicus
Scientific classification Red Pencil Icon.png
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Ensifera
Family: Gryllidae
Genus: Gryllus
Species:
G. pennsylvanicus
Binomial name
Gryllus pennsylvanicus
Burmeister, 1838  [1]
Gpennsylvanicusmap.png
Synonyms   [2]
  • G. abbreviatusServille, 1838
  • G. angustusScudder, 1863
  • G. arenaceusBlatchley, 1903
  • G. luctuosusServille, 1838

Gryllus pennsylvanicus is known as the fall field cricket. G. pennsylvanicus is common in southern Ontario, is widespread across much of North America [3] [4] and can be found even into parts of northern Mexico. It tends to be absent in most of the southwestern United States including southern California. Within its geographic range this field cricket will burrow into soil in fields and forest edges. [5] Individuals inhabit grassy disturbed areas [4] [6] and are often found around areas of human habitation. [7]

Contents

Identification

Adults reach 15–25 millimetres (0.6–1.0 in) and coloration ranges from dark black to dark brown, although some specimens show a slight reddish tint. [8] The black antennae tend to be longer than the body span of the species. The cerci are longer than the head and prothorax, and the wings do not extend past the cerci. [9]

Life cycle

During the breeding season, the number of adult female G. pennsylvanicus captured in pitfall traps peaks approximately two weeks after the peak in the number of adult males captured, [10] which seems to indicate protandry. Breeding in some areas also coincides with the seed rain from certain agricultural weeds, [11] possibly providing females with food resources to increase their fecundity. Males call from the mouths of burrows or cracks in the ground into which they escape when scared. Calling males are separated from each other by approximately 7.7 to 10.3 m in the field, [12] likely making it costly for females to sample large numbers of potential mates. Male G. pennsylvanicus calling song consists of short chirps – roughly two to three per second – each consisting of three to five pulses (each a single closure of the male forewings or tegmina). [13] [14]

The calling song of Gryllus pennsylvanicus

Like most other gryllines, females are attracted to male calling song [15] [16] [17] and are attracted to higher calling effort at least when population density is low. [18] In an elegant series of field experiments, Zuk [19] showed that female G. pennsylvanicus were more attracted to calling song produced by older males than that of younger males. Males found paired with females in the field were also older than unpaired calling males nearby. [20] However, in the earlier experiment higher calling effort explained a small, but statistically significant proportion of the variance in female attraction, [19] raising the possibility that the apparent preference of females for the songs of older males might be due to differences in calling effort between older and younger males.

Adults are mostly active during night when the males sing to attract females. [15] Females will then lay their eggs by injecting their ovipositor into soil.[ citation needed ] A single female will lay around 50 eggs at a time and can lay well over 400 eggs in her life span.[ citation needed ] Eggs laid in the late summer and fall seasons will overwinter and hatch the following spring. [13] [21] There is one generation per year. [13] Sometimes as winter approaches adults will find their way into houses where they will try to overwinter.[ citation needed ]

Life history evolution

Because the only reliable method of distinguishing G. pennsylvanicus and G. veletis is based on the timing of their life history, [13] Alexander and Bigelow [21] proposed that G. veletis and G. pennsylvanicus were sister species and had diverged through a process of allochronic speciation, whereby a temporal separation between the breeding seasons of the two incipient species restricts gene flow. [21] However, G. veletis and G. pennsylvanicus are not sister taxa; instead, G. pennsylvanicus form a well-supported clade with G. ovisopis and G. firmus, [22] [23] the latter of which forms an extensive hybrid zone with G. pennsylvanicus in the eastern United States. [24] Currently, a major molecular phylogenetic revision of North American Gryllinae is underway (D. Gray, pers. comm.) that will include the approximately 20 [4] western species as well as eastern species left out of earlier phylogenies (e.g. G. vernalis). This greatly anticipated work will undoubtedly provide ample diversity fodder for research into the evolution of life histories.

Diet

Cichorium intybus: a food source for G. pennsylvanicus Chicory flower 001.jpg
Cichorium intybus: a food source for G. pennsylvanicus

G. pennsylvanicus is an omnivorous [25] organism and has been shown to be a significant predator of both seeds [10] [11] [26] and invertebrates. [27] [28] [29] The broad diet of G. pennsylvanicus, coupled with seasonal variation in the availability of different types of prey (plant or animal) could exert substantial diversifying selection on cricket life histories (i.e. the genotypes that are optimal in high seed abundance years are likely different from those that are most fit in years of high invertebrate prey – genotype by environment interactions [30] ).

Recorded food plants of G. pennsylvanicus include smooth crabgrass ( Digitaria ischaemum ), lamb's quarters ( Chenopodium album ), English plantain ( Plantago lanceolata ), switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum ), common ragweed ( Ambrosia artemisiifolia ) and chicory ( Cichorium intybus ). Even though they are a sizable cricket for North America they are preyed upon by everything from hawks to hornets.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gryllidae</span> Family of crickets

The family Gryllidae contains the subfamilies and genera which entomologists now term true crickets. Having long, whip-like antennae, they belong to the Orthopteran suborder Ensifera, which has been greatly reduced in the last 100 years : taxa such as the spider-crickets and allies, sword-tail crickets, wood or ground crickets and scaly crickets have been elevated to family level. The type genus is Gryllus and the first use of the family name "Gryllidae" was by Walker.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mole cricket</span> Members of the insect family Gryllotalpidae

Mole crickets are members of the insect family Gryllotalpidae, in the order Orthoptera. Mole crickets are cylindrical-bodied, fossorial insects about 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) long as adults, with small eyes and shovel-like fore limbs highly developed for burrowing. They are present in many parts of the world and where they have arrived in new regions, may become agricultural pests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gryllinae</span> Subfamily of crickets

Gryllinae, or field crickets, are a subfamily of insects in the order Orthoptera and the family Gryllidae.

Dr. William H. "Bill" Cade is a biologist and a former president of the University of Lethbridge. He researches the role of acoustic signals in field cricket mating behaviour.

<i>Ormia ochracea</i> Species of fly

Ormia ochracea is a small yellow nocturnal fly in the family Tachinidae. It is notable for its parasitism of crickets and its exceptionally acute directional hearing. The female is attracted to the song of the male cricket and deposits larvae on or around him, as was discovered in 1975 by the zoologist William H. Cade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tegmen</span>

A tegmen designates the modified leathery front wing on an insect particularly in the orders Dermaptera (earwigs), Orthoptera, Mantodea, Phasmatodea and Blattodea (cockroaches).

<i>Gryllus campestris</i> European species of insect

Gryllus campestris, the European field cricket or simply the field cricket in the British Isles, is the type species of crickets in its genus and tribe Gryllini. These flightless dark colored insects are comparatively large; the males range from 19 to 23 mm and the females from 17 to 22 mm.

<i>Gryllus bimaculatus</i> Species of cricket

Gryllus bimaculatus is a species of cricket in the subfamily Gryllinae. Most commonly known as the two-spotted cricket, it has also been called the "African" or "Mediterranean field cricket", although its recorded distribution also includes much of Asia, including China and Indochina through to Borneo. It can be discriminated from other Gryllus species by the two dot-like marks on the base of its wings.

<i>Teleogryllus oceanicus</i> Species of cricket

Teleogryllus oceanicus, commonly known as the Australian, Pacific or oceanic field cricket, is a cricket found across Oceania and in coastal Australia from Carnarvon in Western Australia and Rockhampton in north-east Queensland

<i>Gryllus veletis</i> Species of cricket

Gryllus veletis, commonly known as the spring field cricket, is abundant throughout eastern North America. G. veletis is a solitary, aggressive, omnivorous, burrow-inhabiting species of cricket. This species is commonly confused with Gryllus pennsylvanicus, as they inhabit the same geographical area. However, the two species are easily distinguished through examination of life history, ovipositor and behavioural differences. Predators of G. veletis include American toads, wild turkeys, red-tailed hawks, wolf spiders and red-backed salamanders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cricket (insect)</span> Small insects of the family Gryllidae

Crickets are orthopteran insects which are related to bush crickets, and, more distantly, to grasshoppers. In older literature, such as Imms, "crickets" were placed at the family level, but contemporary authorities including Otte now place them in the superfamily Grylloidea. The word has been used in combination to describe more distantly related taxa in the suborder Ensifera, such as king crickets and mole crickets.

<i>Gryllus</i> Genus of crickets

Gryllus is a genus of field cricket. Members of the genus are typically 15–31 mm long and darkly coloured. The type species is Gryllus campestris L.: the European field cricket.

Platygryllus is a genus of crickets in the subfamily Gryllinae. Records of species distribution include Africa, southern Europe and in Asia: India, Java and the Philippines.

<i>Gryllus rubens</i> Species of cricket

Gryllus rubens, commonly known as the southeastern field cricket, is one of many cricket species known as a field cricket. It occurs throughout most of the Southeastern United States. Its northern range spans from southern Delaware to the extreme southeastern corner of Kansas, with a southern range stretching from Florida to eastern Texas.

<i>Gryllus vernalis</i> Species of cricket

Gryllus vernalis, the northern wood cricket, is a species of cricket native to deciduous woods of the midwestern United States, where its primary habitat is leaf litter. It can be identified by its totally black exoskeleton and its wide pronotum.

Gryllus integer, commonly known as the western trilling cricket, is one of many species of field cricket in the genus Gryllus. It is called the "triller" field cricket because its song is nearly continuous rather than broken into discrete chirps. G. integer can be found in parts of the Western United States, having been recorded from Oregon, California, Arizona and New Mexico.

<i>Teleogryllus commodus</i> Species of cricket

Teleogryllus commodus, commonly known as the black field cricket, is a cricket species native to Australia.They are significant pests to most plants in Australia and New Zealand. T. commodus belongs to the order Orthoptera, the family Gryllidae which are characterized by wings that are folded on the side of the body, chewing mouthparts and long, thin antennae. T. commodus has the ability to learn via the recognition of rewards. In addition, they are also capable of odour recognition and thus can be taught via odour pairing.

<i>Gryllus assimilis</i> Species of cricket native to the Western Hemisphere

Gryllus assimilis, commonly known as the Jamaican field cricket and sometimes referred to as the silent cricket among other names, is one of many cricket species known as a field cricket. Its natural habitats are the West Indies and parts of the southern United States, Mexico, and South America, though as a result of widespread breeding programs to supply feeder insects to the pet industry since 2010, it has become available commercially throughout North America and Europe.

Gryllus firmus, commonly known as the sand field cricket, is a species of cricket in the subfamily Gryllinae. It is found in the southeastern United States.

<i>Anurogryllus arboreus</i> Species of cricket

Anurogryllus arboreus, the common short-tailed cricket or arboreal short-tailed cricket, is a species of cricket in the family Gryllidae. It is native to the southern and south-eastern United States where it lives in a burrow that it digs.

References

  1. ↑ "Gryllus pennsylvanicus Burmeister, 1838". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  2. ↑ "Gryllus pennsylvanicus (Pennsylvania Field Cricket)" . Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  3. ↑ Alexander, R. D. 1968. Life cycle origins, speciation, and related phenomena in crickets. Q. Rev. Biol. 43, 1-41.
  4. 1 2 3 Capinera, J. L., Scott, R. D., and Walker, T. J. 2004. Field Guide to Grasshoppers, Katydids, and Crickets of the United States. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
  5. ↑ "Species Gryllus pennsylvanicus - Fall Field Cricket - BugGuide.Net" . Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  6. ↑ Tennis, P. 1983. Survivorship, spatial pattern, and habitat structure of field crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) in two old fields. Environmental Entomology 12, 110-116.
  7. ↑ Alexander, R. D., and Meral, G. H. 1967. Seasonal and daily chirping cycles in the northern spring and fall field crickets, Gryllus veletis and G. pennsylvanicus. Ohio J. Sci. 67, 200-209.
  8. ↑ Evans, Arthur V. (2007). "Grasshoppers, Cricketys, and Katydids: Order Orthoptera". Field Guide to Insects and Spiders of North America. Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. p. 100. ISBN   978-1-4027-4153-1.
  9. ↑ Knopf, Milne & Milne (2005). "Grasshoppers and Crickets". National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Insects & Spiders (23rd ed.). Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. p.  439. ISBN   0-394-50763-0.
  10. 1 2 Carmona, D. M., Menalled, F. D., and Landis, D. A. 1999. Gryllus pennsylvanicus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae): laboratory weed seed predation and within field activity-density. J. Econ. Entomol. 92, 825-829.
  11. 1 2 O'Rourke, M. E., Heggenstaller, A. H., Liebman, M., and Rice, M. E. 2006. Post-dispersal weed seed predation by invertebrates in conventional and low-external-input crop rotation systems. Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 116, 280-288.
  12. ↑ French, B. W., McGowan, E. J., and Backus, V. L. 1986. Spatial distribution of calling field crickets, Gryllus pennsylvanicus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae). Fla. Entomol. 69, 255-257.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Alexander, R. D. 1957. The taxonomy of the field crickets of the eastern United States (Orthoptera: Gryllidae: Acheta). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 50, 584-602.
  14. ↑ Doherty, J. A., and Storz, M. M. 1992. Calling song and selective phonotaxis in the field crickets, Gryllus firmus and G. pennsylvanicus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae). J. Insect Behav. 5, 555-569.
  15. 1 2 Alexander, R. D. 1961. Aggressiveness, territoriality, and sexual behavior in field crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae). Behaviour 17, 130-223.
  16. ↑ Loher, W. and Dambach, M. 1989. Reproductive behavior. In Cricket Behavior and Neurobiology (ed. Huber, F., Moore, T. E., and Loher, W.), pp. 43-82. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
  17. ↑ Jeffery, J., Navia, B., Atkins, G., and Stout, J. 2005. Selective processing of calling songs by auditory interneurons in the female cricket, Gryllus pennsylvanicus: possible roles in behavior. J. Exp. Zool. Comp. Exp. Biol. 303A, 377-392.
  18. ↑ French, B. W., and Cade, W. H. 1987. The timing of calling, movement, and mating in the field crickets Gryllus veletis, G. pennsylvanicus, and G. integer. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 21, 157-162.
  19. 1 2 Zuk, M. 1987. Variability in attractiveness of male field crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) to females. Anim. Behav. 35, 1240-1248.
  20. ↑ Zuk, M. 1988. Parasite load, body size, and age of wild-caught male field crickets (Orthoptera, Gryllidae): effects on sexual selection. Evolution 42, 969-976.
  21. 1 2 3 Alexander, R. D., and Bigelow, R. S. 1960. Allochronic speciation in field crickets, and a new species, Acheta veletis. Evolution 14, 334-346.
  22. ↑ Harrison, R. G., and Bogdanowicz, S. M. 1995. Mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of North American field crickets: perspectives on the evolution of life cycles, songs, and habitat associations. J. Evol. Biol. 8, 209-232.
  23. ↑ Huang, Y., Orti, G., Sutherlin, M., Duhachek, A., and Zera, A. 2000. Phylogenetic relationships of North American field crickets inferred from mitochondrial DNA data. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 17, 48-57.
  24. ↑ Harrison, R. G., and Arnold, J. 1982. A narrow hybrid zone between closely related cricket species. Evolution 36, 535-552.
  25. ↑ Criddle, N. 1925. Field crickets in Manitoba. Can. Entomol. 57, 79-84.
  26. ↑ Brust, E. G., and House, G. J. 1988. Weed seed destruction by arthropods and rodents in low-input soybean agro-ecosystems. Am. J. Alt. Agric. 3, 19-24.
  27. ↑ Monteith, L. G. 1971. Crickets as predators of the apple maggot, Rhagoletis pomonella (Diptera: Tephritidae). Can. Entomol. 103, 52-58.
  28. ↑ Bechinski, E. J., Bechinski, J. F., and Pedigo, L. P. 1983. Survivorship of experimental green cloverworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) pupal cohorts in soybeans. Environ. Entomol. 12, 662-668.
  29. ↑ Burgess, L. and Hinks, C. F. 1987. Predation on adults of the crucifer flea beetle, Phyllotreta cruciferae (Goeze), by the northern fall field cricket, Gryllus pennsylvanicus Burmeister (Orthoptera: Gryllidae). Can. Entomol. 119, 495-496.
  30. ↑ Reznick, D., Nunney, L., and Tessier, A. 2000. Big houses, big cars, superfleas and the costs of reproduction. Trends Ecol. Evol. 15, 421-425.
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