History of candle making

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Candle moulding machine in Indonesia circa 1920 COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Kaarsengietmachine TMnr 10014241.jpg
Candle moulding machine in Indonesia circa 1920

Candle making was developed independently in a number of countries around the world. [1]

Contents

Candles were primarily made from tallow and beeswax in Europe from the Roman period until the modern era, when spermaceti (from sperm whales) was used in the 18th and 19th centuries, [2] and purified animal fats (stearin) and paraffin wax since the 19th century. [1] In China, textual evidence suggests that candles may have been made from whale fat in the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE). [3] Chinese candles may be made from beeswax, or stillingia tallow from Chinese tallow tree, or Chinese wax derived from insects, while the Japanese may use Japan wax from the Japanese wax tree. [4] In India, wax from boiling cinnamon was used for temple candles. [3]

Video of dipping candles as part of the process of making candles by hand

In Europe, a number of techniques were used to make candles in the early periods. These may be dipping or drawing a wick in molten wax or tallow, shaping it by hand by rolling soft wax around a wick, or pouring wax or tallow over the wick. Moulds were used later, and in the 19th century, large-scale industrial manufacturing technique was introduced for the mass production of candles. Candle use declined with the arrival of other methods of lighting such as electric light, although candles are still being made.

Antiquity

Object in the tomb of Tutankhamun that could be a candle holder. Tutankhamun tomb photographs 5 452.jpg
Object in the tomb of Tutankhamun that could be a candle holder.

Before candles were invented, ancient people used open fire, torches, splinters of resinous wood, and lamps to provide light at night. [5] Primitive oil lamps in which a lit wick rested in a pool of oil or fat were used from the Paleolithic period, and pottery and stone lamps from the Neolithic period have been found. [6] Candles may have been produced after the early Bronze Age, [7] but it is unclear when and where candles were first used. Objects that could possibly be candle holders have been found in Babylonian and middle Minoan cultures, as well as in the tomb of Tutankhamun, [8] and a possible depiction of a lit candle in the tomb of Amenemhat. [9] However, the candles used in the early periods may not resemble current forms and were likely made from plant materials dipped in animal fat. [10] Ancient Greeks offered to moon goddess Artemis moon-shaped honey cakes said to be lit by little torches or candles, [11] [12] and this has been proposed as the origin of the tradition of putting candles on birthday cakes. [13] However, cakes with any resemblance to modern Western birthday cakes only arose by around 1600 in Europe. [14] and ancient Greece used torches and oil lamps, and may have adopted candle use only in a later period from Rome. [15]

Etruscan candelabrum c. 550 B.C Bronze candelabrum MET DP250501.jpg
Etruscan candelabrum c. 550 B.C

It is often believed that the use of wicked candles developed in Italy in the Etruscan period; [8] [15] there is a picture of a candlestick in an Etruscan tomb at Orvieto, [15] and the earliest Etruscan candlestick may date from the 7th century BC. [16] Candles may have evolved from tapers with wicks of oakum and other plant fibre soaked in fat, pitch or oil. [7] Candles of antiquity were made from various forms of natural fat, tallow, and wax, and Romans made true dipped candles from tallow and beeswax. [17] Beeswax candles were expensive and their use was limited to the wealthy. [15] Oil lamps were the most widely used source of illumination in Roman Italy, but candles were common and regularly given as gifts during Saturnalia. [18]

Candles used for blessing in Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem Feofil III.jpg
Candles used for blessing in Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem

In Christian churches, candles gained significance in their decorative, symbolic and ceremonial uses. Wax candles, or candelae cereae recorded at the end of the 3rd century, were documented as Easter candles in Spain and Italy in the 4th century, [8] the Christian festival Candlemas was named after the candle, and Pope Sergius I instituted the procession of lighted candles. Papal bulls decreed that tallow be excluded from use in altar candles, and high beeswax content was necessary for the candles of the high altar. [19]

Beeswax was a byproduct of honey collection, and it was collected after honey had been extracted, and purified by boiling it in seawater a few times. [20] The early candles were produced using a number of methods: dipping or drawing the wick in molten fat or wax repeatedly until it reached the desired size, building the candle by hand by rolling soft wax around a wick, or pouring fat or wax onto a wick to build up the candle. [21] [22] The use of moulds was a 14th century development. [21]

In China, the mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BC), first emperor of China, was said by historian Sima Qian to contain candles made from whale fat. [23] The word zhú was used for "candle" during the Warring States period (403–221 BCE); some excavated bronzewares from that era feature a pricket thought to hold a candle. [24]

The Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) Jizhupian dictionary of about 40 BC hints at candles being made of beeswax, while the Book of Jin (compiled in 648) covering the Jin Dynasty (266–420) makes a solid reference to the beeswax candle in regard to its use by the statesman Zhou Yi (d. 322). [24] An excavated earthenware bowl from the 4th century AD, located at the Luoyang Museum, has a hollowed socket where traces of wax were found. [24]

There is a fish called the eulachon or "candlefish", a type of smelt which is found from Oregon to Alaska. Native Americans from this region used oil from this fish for illumination. [3] A simple candle could be made by putting the dried fish on a forked stick and then lighting it.

Middle Ages

The oldest surviving bees wax candles north of the Alps from the alamannic graveyard of Oberflacht, Germany dating to 6th/7th century A.D. Candles Oberflacht.jpg
The oldest surviving bees wax candles north of the Alps from the alamannic graveyard of Oberflacht, Germany dating to 6th/7th century A.D.

After the collapse of the Roman empire, trading disruptions made olive oil, the most common fuel for oil lamps, unavailable throughout much of Europe. As a consequence, candles became more widely used.[ citation needed ]

Candles were commonplace throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. Candle makers (known as chandlers) made candles from fats saved from the kitchen or sold their own candles from within their shops. The trade of the chandler is also recorded by the more picturesque name of "smeremongere", since they oversaw the manufacture of sauces, vinegar, soap and cheese. The popularity of candles is shown by their use in Candlemas and in Saint Lucy festivities.

Tallow, fat from cows or sheep, became the standard material used in candles in Europe. The unpleasant smell of tallow candles is due to the glycerine they contain. The smell of the manufacturing process was so unpleasant that it was banned by ordinance in several European cities. Beeswax was discovered to be an excellent substance for candle production without the unpleasant odour, but remained restricted in usage for the rich and for churches and royal events, due to their great expense.

In England and France, candle making had become a guild craft by the 13th century, and a French guild was documented as early as 1061. [22] The Tallow Chandlers Company of London was formed in about 1300 in London, and in 1456 was granted a coat of arms. The Wax Chandlers Company existed prior to 1330 and acquired its charter in 1484. By 1415, tallow candles were used in street lighting. The first candle mould comes from the 15th century in Paris. [25] Sieur de Brez introduced the technique of using a mould, although candles had a tendency to stick to the mould and break when it was being removed from the mould. Real improvement for the efficient production of candles with mould was only achieved in the 19th century. [21]

In the Middle East, during the Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates, beeswax was the dominant material used for candle making. [26] Beeswax was often imported from long distances; for example, candle makers from Egypt used beeswax from Tunis. [26] As in Europe, these candles were fairly expensive, and most commoners used oil lamps instead. [26] Elites, though, could afford to spend large sums on expensive candles. [26] For example, the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil spent 1.2 million silver dirhams annually on candles for his royal palaces. [26]

In early modern Syria, candles were in high demand by all socioeconomic classes because they were customarily lit during marriage ceremonies. [26] There were candle makers' guilds in the Safavid capital of Isfahan during the 1500s and 1600s. [26] However, candle makers had a relatively low social position in Safavid Iran, comparable to barbers, bathhouse workers, fortune tellers, bricklayers, and porters. [26]

Handmade Chinese candles with bamboo core Quan Chi Cun Shou Gong La Zhu .jpg
Handmade Chinese candles with bamboo core

In China, beeswax candles were common in the Tang and Sung dynasties. [27] Wax from a plant, stillingia tallow from Chinese tallow tree, may be used to make candles together with beeswax. Stillingia tallow has a low melting point and it therefore may be encased with the harder beeswax. [4] The Chinese may have started cultivating the tallow tree in the Yangtze Delta region in the 7th century. [28] Wax from the plant was commonly used to make Buddhist ceremonial candles. Another type of wax, the Chinese wax derived from insects and resembles the best spermaceti, may also be used. The production of Chinese wax was mastered by the Yuan dynasty. [27] A type of Chinese candles has a bamboo rod as its core, onto which paper is wound spirally with rush pith as wick, and this is then repeatedly dipped in melted wax or fats and cooled until the desired size is reached. The candles may be coloured and sometimes decorated with characters. [29]

The Japanese have similar candle-making techniques as the Chinese, but they also developed a method of moulding candles using paper tubes. [30] They may use Japan wax from the Japanese wax tree for making candles. [4]

Wax from boiling cinnamon was used for temple candles in India. [3] Yak butter was used for candles in Tibet.

Modern era

'Colonial'-style tapered candle molds Colonial candle molds at fruitlands.jpg
'Colonial'-style tapered candle molds

With the growth of the whaling industry in the 18th century, spermaceti, an oil that comes from a cavity in the head of the sperm whale, became a widely used substance for candle making. The wax was made by crystallizing the oil, and was the first candle substance to become available in mass quantities. Like beeswax, spermaceti wax did not create a repugnant odor when burned, and produced a significantly brighter light. It was also harder than either tallow or beeswax, so it would not soften or bend in the summer heat. The first "standard candles" were made from spermaceti wax.

By 1800, an even cheaper alternative was discovered. Colza oil, derived from Brassica campestris , and a similar oil derived from rapeseed, yielded candles that produce clear, smokeless flames. The French chemists Michel Eugène Chevreul (1786–1889) and Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) patented stearin in 1825. Like tallow, this was derived from animals, but had no glycerine content.

Industrialization

Joseph Morgan's candle making machine revolutionized candle making Joseph Morgan candle maker.jpg
Joseph Morgan's candle making machine revolutionized candle making

The manufacture of candles became an industrialised mass market in the mid 19th century. In 1834, Joseph Morgan, a pewterer from Manchester, England, patented a machine that revolutionised candle making. It allowed continuous production of molded candles, using a cylinder with a moveable piston to eject candles as they solidified. This method produced about 1,500 candles per hour: (according to his patent, "with three men and five boys [the machine] will manufacture two tons of candle in twelve hours"). Now poorer people could now easily afford candles. [31]

Price's Candles became the largest candle manufacturer in the world by the end of the 19th century Price's Palmitine Candles00.jpg
Price's Candles became the largest candle manufacturer in the world by the end of the 19th century

At this time, candlemakers also began to fashion wicks out of tightly braided (rather than simply twisted) strands of cotton. This technique makes wicks curl over as they burn, maintaining the height of the wick and therefore the flame. Because much of the excess wick is incinerated, these are referred to as "self-trimming" or "self-consuming" wicks. [32]

In 1848 James Young established the world's first oil refinery at the Alfreton Ironworks in Riddings, Derbyshire. Two paraffin wax candles were made from the naturally occurring paraffin wax present in the oil, and these candles illuminated a lecture at the Royal Institution by Lyon Playfair. In the mid-1850s, James Young succeeded in distilling paraffin wax from coal and oil shales at Bathgate in West Lothian, and developed a commercially viable method of production. [33] The paraffin wax was processed by distilling residue left after crude petroleum was refined.

Paraffin could be used to make inexpensive candles of high quality. It was a bluish-white wax, burned cleanly, and left no unpleasant odor, unlike tallow candles. A drawback to the substance was that early coal- and petroleum-derived paraffin waxes had a very low melting point. The introduction of stearin, discovered by Michel Eugène Chevreul, solved this problem. [34] [35] Stearin is hard and durable, with a convenient melting range of 54–72.5 °C (129.2–162.5 °F). By the end of the 19th century, most candles being manufactured consisted of paraffin and stearic acid.

By the late 19th century, Price's Candles, based in London, was the largest candle manufacturer in the world. [36] The company traced its origins back to 1829, when William Wilson invested in 1,000 acres (1.6 sq mi; 4.0 km2) of coconut plantation in Sri Lanka. [37] His aim was to make candles from coconut oil. Later he tried palm oil from palm trees. An accidental discovery swept all his ambitions aside when his son George Wilson, a talented chemist, distilled the first petroleum oil in 1854. George also pioneered the implementation of the technique of steam distillation, and was thus able to manufacture candles from a wide range of raw materials, including skin fat, bone fat, fish oil and industrial greases.

In America, Syracuse, New York developed into a global center for candle manufacturing from the mid-nineteenth century. Manufacturers included Will & Baumer, Mack Miller, Muench Kruezer, and Cathedral Candle Company.

Decline of the candle industry

Candles here are used to celebrate a birthday Birthday candles.jpg
Candles here are used to celebrate a birthday

Despite advances in candle making, the candle industry declined rapidly upon the introduction of superior methods of lighting, including kerosene lamps, and from 1879 the incandescent light bulb.

From then on, candles came to be marketed as more of a decorative item. Candles retain their unique symbolic significance, for instance as votive offerings. Candles became available in a broad array of sizes, shapes and colors, and consumer interest in scented candles began to grow. During the 1990s, new types of candle waxes were being developed due to an unusually high demand for candles. Paraffin, a by-product of oil, was quickly replaced by new waxes and wax blends owing to rising costs.

Candle manufacturers looked at waxes such as soy, palm and flax-seed oil, often blending them with paraffin to achieve the performance of paraffin with the price benefits of the other waxes. The creation of unique wax blends, now requiring different fragrance chemistries and loads, encouraged candle wick manufacturers to innovate to meet performance needs with the often tougher-to-burn formulations. [38]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paraffin wax</span> Soft colorless solid derived from petroleum, coal or shale oil

Paraffin wax is a soft colorless solid derived from petroleum, coal, or oil shale that consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules containing between 20 and 40 carbon atoms. It is solid at room temperature and begins to melt above approximately 37 °C (99 °F), and its boiling point is above 370 °C (698 °F). Common applications for paraffin wax include lubrication, electrical insulation, and candles; dyed paraffin wax can be made into crayons. It is distinct from kerosene and other petroleum products that are sometimes called paraffin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beeswax</span> Natural wax produced by honey bees of the genus Apis

Beeswax is a natural wax produced by honey bees of the genus Apis. The wax is formed into scales by eight wax-producing glands in the abdominal segments of worker bees, which discard it in or at the hive. The hive workers collect and use it to form cells for honey storage and larval and pupal protection within the beehive. Chemically, beeswax consists mainly of esters of fatty acids and various long-chain alcohols.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Candle</span> Wick embedded in solid flammable substance

A candle is an ignitable wick embedded in wax, or another flammable solid substance such as tallow, that provides light, and in some cases, a fragrance. A candle can also provide heat or a method of keeping time. Candles have been used for over two millennia around the world, and were a significant form of lighting until the invention of other types of light sources. Although electric light has largely made candle use nonessential for illumination, candles are still commonly used for functional, symbolic and aesthetic purposes and in specific cultural and religious settings. Various devices can be used to hold candles, such as candlesticks, or candelabras, chandeliers, lanterns and sconces. A person who makes candles is traditionally known as a chandler.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wax</span> Class of organic compounds which are malleable at room temperature

Waxes are a diverse class of organic compounds that are lipophilic, malleable solids near ambient temperatures. They include higher alkanes and lipids, typically with melting points above about 40 °C (104 °F), melting to give low viscosity liquids. Waxes are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents such as hexane, benzene and chloroform. Natural waxes of different types are produced by plants and animals and occur in petroleum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tallow</span> Rendered form of beef or mutton fat

Tallow is a rendered form of beef or mutton suet, primarily made up of triglycerides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stearin</span> Chemical compound

Stearin, or tristearin, or glyceryl tristearate is an odourless, white powder. It is a triglyceride derived from three units of stearic acid. Most triglycerides are derived from at least two and more commonly three different fatty acids. Like other triglycerides, stearin can crystallise in three polymorphs. For stearin, these melt at 54 (α-form), 65, and 72.5 °C (β-form).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spermaceti</span> Waxy substance found in the head cavities of sperm whales

Spermaceti is a waxy substance found in the head cavities of the sperm whale. Spermaceti is created in the spermaceti organ inside the whale's head. This organ may contain as much as 1,900 litres (500 US gal) of spermaceti. It has been extracted by whalers since the 17th century for human use in cosmetics, textiles, and candles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Worshipful Company of Tallow Chandlers</span> Livery company of the City of London

The Worshipful Company of Tallow Chandlers is one of the ancient livery companies of the City of London. The organisation, which engaged not only in tallow candle making but also in the trade of oils, first received a Royal Charter in 1462.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wax play</span> Method of sadomasochistic play

Wax play is a form of temperature play practiced in a BDSM context, in which wax from a candle is dripped onto a person's naked skin, in order to introduce a slight burning sensation to the skin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Votive candle</span> Type of votive offering in Christianity

A votive candle or prayer candle is a small candle, typically white or beeswax yellow, intended to be burnt as a votive offering in an act of Christian prayer, especially within the Anglican, Lutheran, and Roman Catholic Christian denominations, among others. In Christianity, votive candles are commonplace in many churches, as well as home altars, and symbolize the "prayers the worshipper is offering for him or herself, or for other people." The size of a votive candle is often two inches tall by one and a half inches diameter, although other votive candles can be significantly taller and wider. In other religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism, similar offerings exist, which include diyas and butter lamps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rushlight</span> Lighting made by dipping a rush in fat or grease

A rushlight is a type of candle or miniature torch formed by soaking the dried pith of the rush plant in fat or grease. For several centuries, rushlights were a common source of artificial light for poor people throughout the British Isles. They were extremely inexpensive to make. English essayist William Cobbett wrote, "This rushlight cost almost nothing to produce and was believed to give a better light than some poorly dipped candles."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ozokerite</span> Mineral wax

Ozokerite or ozocerite, archaically referred to as earthwax or earth wax, is a naturally occurring odoriferous mineral wax or paraffin found in many localities. Lacking a definite composition and crystalline structure, it is not considered a mineral but only a mineraloid. The name was coined from Greek elements Όζω ozο, to stink, and κηρός keros, wax.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Price's Candles</span> Candle supply company in England

Price's Patent Candles, founded in 1830, is an importer and retailer of candles. The firm is headquartered in Bedford in England, and holds the royal warrant of appointment for the supply of candles. It is today the largest candle supplier in the United Kingdom, and the company holds an important place in the technological history of candle making.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Candle wick</span> The piece of string in a candle which burns when lit

A candle wick or lamp wick is usually made of braided cotton that holds the flame of a candle or oil lamp. A candle wick works by capillary action, conveying ("wicking") the fuel to the flame. When the liquid fuel, typically melted candle wax, reaches the flame it then vaporizes and combusts. In other words, the wick brings the liquified wax up into the flame to burn. The candle wick influences how the candle burns. Important characteristics of the wick include diameter, stiffness, fire-resistance, and tethering.

Japan wax, also known as sumac wax, sumach wax, vegetable wax, China green tallow, and Japan tallow, is a pale-yellow, waxy, water-insoluble solid with a gummy feel, obtained from the berries of certain sumacs native to Japan and China, such as Toxicodendron vernicifluum and Toxicodendron succedaneum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sperm oil</span> Waxy liquid obtained from sperm whales

Sperm oil is a waxy liquid obtained from sperm whales. It is a clear, yellowish liquid with a very faint odor. Sperm oil has a different composition from common whale oil, obtained from rendered blubber. Although it is traditionally called an "oil", it is technically a liquid wax. It is composed of wax esters with a small proportion of triglycerides, an ester of an unsaturated fatty acid, and a branched-chain fatty alcohol. It is a natural antioxidant and heat-transfer agent. In the late-18th and early-19th centuries, sperm oil was prized as an illuminant for its bright, odorless flame and as a lubricant for its low viscosity and stability. It was supplanted in the late 19th century by less expensive alternatives such as kerosene and petroleum-based lubricants. With the 1987 international ban on whaling, sperm oil is no longer legally sold.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soy candle</span> Common candle type

Soy candles are candles made from soy wax, which is a processed form of soybean oil. They are usually container candles because soy wax typically has a lower melting point than traditional waxes, but can also be made into pillar candles if certain additives are mixed into the soy wax.

Miller and Sons were manufacturers of oil lamps with offices at 179 Piccadilly, London. They were registered as "Spermaceti-refiners, Wax Chandlers, Oil-merchants".

<i>Toxicodendron succedaneum</i> Species of flowering plant

Toxicodendron succedaneum, the wax tree, Japanese Hazenoki tree, sơn in Vietnamese or charão in Portuguese, is a flowering plant species in the genus Toxicodendron found in Asia, although it has been planted elsewhere, most notably Australia and New Zealand. It is a large shrub or tree, up to 8 m tall, somewhat similar to a sumac tree. Because of its beautiful autumn foliage, it has been planted outside Asia as an ornamental plant, often by gardeners who were apparently unaware of the dangers of allergic reactions. It is now officially classified as a noxious weed in Australia and New Zealand. It is one of the city tree symbols of Kurume, Fukuoka, Japan.

George Fergusson Wilson was an English industrial chemist.

References

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  7. 1 2 Forbes 1966, p.  134.
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  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Beg, M.A.J. (1997). "SAMMĀ'". In Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P.; Lecomte, G. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. IX (SAN-SZE) (PDF). Leiden: Brill. p. 288. ISBN   90-04-10422-4 . Retrieved 13 June 2022.
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  30. ↑ Bulletin. Vol. 141. Smithsonian Institution US National Museum. 1928. p. 17.
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  34. ↑ "Using stearic acid or stearin in candlemaking". happynews.com. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
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Bibliography

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