Honeydew (secretion)

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An aphid produces honeydew for an ant in an example of mutualistic symbiosis. Ant Receives Honeydew from Aphid.jpg
An aphid produces honeydew for an ant in an example of mutualistic symbiosis.
Honeydew drops on leaves Honeydew on a leaf (cropped).jpg
Honeydew drops on leaves
Bald-faced hornet sips honeydew from a Disholcaspis quercusmamma gall covered by sooty mold Dolichovespula maculata sips nectar from Disholcaspis quercusmamma gall.jpg
Bald-faced hornet sips honeydew from a Disholcaspis quercusmamma gall covered by sooty mold
Magicicada cassini "cicada rain" slow motion

Honeydew is a sugar-rich sticky liquid, secreted by aphids, some scale insects, and many other true bugs and some other insects as they feed on plant sap. When their mouthpart penetrates the phloem, the sugary, high-pressure liquid is forced out of the anus of the insects, allowing them to rapidly process the large volume of sap required to extract essential nutrients present at low concentrations. Honeydew is particularly common as a secretion in hemipteran insects and is often the basis for trophobiosis. [1] Some caterpillars of Lycaenidae butterflies and some moths also produce honeydew. [2] In addition to various sugars, honeydew contains small amounts of amino acids, other organic compounds, and inorganic salts with its precise makeup affected by factors such as insect species, host plant species, and whether a symbiotic organism is present. [1] [3]

Contents

Honeydew-producing insects, like cicadas, pierce phloem ducts to access the sugar rich sap; the excess fluid released by cicadas as honeydew is called "cicada rain". [4] [5] The sap continues to bleed after the insects have moved on, leaving a white sugar crust called manna. [6] Ants may collect, or "milk", honeydew directly from aphids and other honeydew producers, which benefit from their presence due to their driving away predators such as lady beetles or parasitic wasps—see Crematogaster peringueyi . Animals and plants in a mutually symbiotic arrangement with ants are called Myrmecophiles.

In Madagascar, some gecko species in the genera Phelsuma and Lygodactylus are known to approach flatid plant-hoppers on tree-trunks from below and induce them to excrete honeydew by head nodding behaviour. The plant-hopper then raises its abdomen and excretes a drop of honeydew almost right onto the snout of the gecko. [7]

Honeydew can cause sooty mold on many ornamental plants. It also contaminates vehicles parked beneath trees, and can then be difficult to remove from glass and bodywork. Honeydew is also secreted by certain fungi, particularly ergot. [8] Honeydew is collected by certain species of birds, mosquitoes, [9] [10] wasps, stingless bees [11] and honey bees, which process it into a dark, strong honey (honeydew honey). This is highly prized in parts of Europe and Asia for its reputed medicinal value. Parachartergus fraternus , a eusocial wasp species, collects honeydew to feed to their growing larvae. [12] Recent research has also documented the use of honeydew by over 40 species of wild, native, mostly solitary bees in California. [13]

Religion and mythology

In Norse mythology, dew falls from the ash tree Yggdrasil to the earth, and according to the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , "this is what people call honeydew and from it bees feed." [14]

In Greek mythology, méli, or "honey", drips from the Manna–ash ( Fraxinus ornus ), with which the Meliae , or "ash tree nymphs", nursed the infant god Zeus on the island of Crete [15] (as in the Hymn to Zeus by Callimachus).[ citation needed ]

Honey-dew is referenced in the last lines of Samuel Coleridge's poem Kubla Khan , perhaps because of its mythological connotations:

And all who heard should see them there,
And all should cry, Beware! Beware!
His flashing eyes, his floating hair!
Weave a circle round him thrice,
And close your eyes with holy dread,
For he on honey-dew hath fed,
And drunk the milk of Paradise.

In the Hebrew Bible, while the Israelites are wandering through the desert after the Exodus, they are miraculously provided with a substance, manna, that is sometimes associated with honeydew. [16] Exodus 16:31 provides a description: "it was like coriander seed, white, and the taste of it was like wafers made with honey." [17]

Nectar producing trees

Honeydew puddle under a tree Honeydew under the tree.jpeg
Honeydew puddle under a tree

Dates

Ommatissus lybicus is attracted to certain cultivars of the date palm tree. The honeydew producing insects preferred the Medjhool variety to the Deglet Noor in Israel, where they have been observed in the Arava Valley. Very dense insect populations may have some adverse effects. Different methods of controlling the insects, including natural and chemical, have been studied. [18]

Eucalyptus

In eucalypt forests, production of both the honeydew nectar and manna tends to increase in spring and autumn. Eucalyptus can produce even more manna than honeydew nectar. The sugar glider eats both, licking the nectar from branches. Other species attracted to the nectar include the feathertail glider, brush-tailed phascogale, and brown antechinus. Most trees are not able to produce sap if the phloem duct becomes damaged by mechanical processes. [6]

Oaks

The acorn weevil ( Curculio glandium ) habitually bores into the young acorns of oak trees. This injury can cause the tree to release a sweet honeydew, thought to attract wasps that can parasitize the weevil within its acorns.[ citation needed ] Honey bees sometimes collect this substance, in addition to honeydew from aphids feeding in oak forests, and use it to produce oak honey, an unusual varietal sold by specialist beekeepers. [19] [20]

Tamarisk

Two scale insects in the Sinai, Trabutina mannipara and Najacoccus serpentinus , feed on Tamarisk trees. They secrete a sugary nectar that turns white when it hardens, resembling certain whitish flakes described in the Hebrew scriptures. [21]

Honeydew honey

The kind of honey made from when bees harvest off the honeydew of sap-eating insects is marked as honeydew honey or forest honey. It is notably darker and more viscous than typical honey. Honeydew honey typically contains more melezitose. It is prized in parts of Europe and New Zealand. [22] [23]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Honey</span> Sweet and viscous substance made by bees mostly using nectar from flowers

Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several species of bees, the best-known of which are honey bees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of plants or the secretions of other insects, like the honeydew of aphids. This refinement takes place both within individual bees, through regurgitation and enzymatic activity, and during storage in the hive, through water evaporation that concentrates the honey's sugars until it is thick and viscous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aphid</span> Superfamily of insects

Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white woolly aphids. A typical life cycle involves flightless females giving live birth to female nymphs—who may also be already pregnant, an adaptation scientists call telescoping generations—without the involvement of males. Maturing rapidly, females breed profusely so that the number of these insects multiplies quickly. Winged females may develop later in the season, allowing the insects to colonize new plants. In temperate regions, a phase of sexual reproduction occurs in the autumn, with the insects often overwintering as eggs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemiptera</span> Order of insects often called true bugs

Hemiptera is an order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, assassin bugs, bed bugs, and shield bugs. They range in size from 1 mm (0.04 in) to around 15 cm (6 in), and share a common arrangement of piercing-sucking mouthparts. The name "true bugs" is often limited to the suborder Heteroptera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paper wasp</span> Vespid wasps that gather fibers from dead wood and plant stems

Paper wasps are a type of vespid wasps. The term is typically used to refer to members of the vespid subfamily Polistinae, though it often colloquially includes members of the subfamilies Vespinae and Stenogastrinae, which also make nests out of paper.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scale insect</span> Superfamily of insects

Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than the superfamily Coccoidea due to taxonomic uncertainties. Adult females typically have soft bodies and no limbs, and are concealed underneath domed scales, extruding quantities of wax for protection. Some species are hermaphroditic, with a combined ovotestis instead of separate ovaries and testes. Males, in the species where they occur, have legs and sometimes wings, and resemble small flies. Scale insects are herbivores, piercing plant tissues with their mouthparts and remaining in one place, feeding on sap. The excess fluid they imbibe is secreted as honeydew on which sooty mold tends to grow. The insects often have a mutualistic relationship with ants, which feed on the honeydew and protect them from predators. There are about 8,000 described species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sap</span> Fluid transported in xylem cells or phloem sieve tube elements of a plant

Sap is a fluid transported in xylem cells or phloem sieve tube elements of a plant. These cells transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aphididae</span> Family of true bugs

The Aphididae are a very large insect family in the aphid superfamily (Aphidoidea), of the order Hemiptera. These insects suck the sap from plant leaves. Several thousand species are placed in this family, many of which are considered plant/crop pests. They are the family of insects containing most plant virus vectors with the green peach aphid being one of the most prevalent and indiscriminate carriers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Melezitose</span> Chemical compound

Melezitose, also spelled melicitose, is a nonreducing trisaccharide sugar that is produced by many plant sap eating insects, including aphids such as Cinara pilicornis, by an enzyme reaction. This is beneficial to the insects, as it reduces the stress of osmosis by reducing their own water potential. The melezitose is part of the honeydew which acts as an attractant for ants and also as a food for bees although it is not easily digestible by bees. This is useful to the aphids as they have a symbiotic relationship with ants. Melezitose can be partially hydrolyzed to glucose and turanose the latter of which is an isomer of sucrose.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Treehopper</span> Family of insects

Treehoppers and thorn bugs are members of the family Membracidae, a group of insects related to the cicadas and the leafhoppers. About 3,200 species of treehoppers in over 400 genera are known. They are found on all continents except Antarctica; only five species are known from Europe. Individual treehoppers usually live for only a few months.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nectar</span> Sugar-rich liquid produced by many flowering plants, that attracts pollinators and insects

Nectar is a viscous, sugar-rich liquid produced by plants in glands called nectaries, either within the flowers with which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists, which in turn provide herbivore protection. Common nectar-consuming pollinators include mosquitoes, hoverflies, wasps, bees, butterflies and moths, hummingbirds, honeyeaters and bats. Nectar plays a crucial role in the foraging economics and evolution of nectar-eating species; for example, nectar foraging behavior is largely responsible for the divergent evolution of the African honey bee, A. m. scutellata and the western honey bee.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nectarivore</span> Animal in which nectar is a main source of nutrition in their diet

In zoology, a nectarivore is an animal which derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of the sugar-rich nectar produced by flowering plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myrmecophily</span> Positive interspecies associations between ants and other organisms

Myrmecophily consists of positive, mutualistic, interspecies associations between ants and a variety of other organisms, such as plants, other arthropods, and fungi. It may also include commensal or even parasitic interactions.

<i>Cinara cupressi</i> Species of true bug

Cinara cupressi, the cypress aphid, is a brownish soft-bodied aphid. It sucks sap from twigs of conifers, and can cause damage to the tree, ranging from discoloring of the affected twig to the death of the tree. This insect appears to have originated in the Middle East and has been increasing its range and is considered to be an invasive species in Africa and Europe. It has been included in the List of the world's 100 worst invasive species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black bean aphid</span> Species of true bug

The black bean aphid is a small black insect in the genus Aphis, with a broad, soft body, a member of the order Hemiptera. Other common names include blackfly, bean aphid, and beet leaf aphid. In the warmer months of the year, it is found in large numbers on the undersides of leaves and on the growing tips of host plants, including various agricultural crops and many wild and ornamental plants. Both winged and wingless forms exist, and at this time of year, they are all females. They suck sap from stems and leaves and cause distortion of the shoots, stunted plants, reduced yield, and spoiled crops. This aphid also acts as a vector for viruses that cause plant disease, and the honeydew it secretes may encourage the growth of sooty mould. It breeds profusely by live birth, but its numbers are kept in check, especially in the later part of the summer, by various predatory and parasitic insects. Ants feed on the honeydew it produces, and take active steps to remove predators. It is a widely distributed pest of agricultural crops and can be controlled by chemical or biological means. In the autumn, winged forms move to different host plants, where both males and females are produced. These mate and the females lay eggs which overwinter.

<i>Coccus viridis</i> Species of true bug

Coccus viridis is a soft scale insect in the family Coccidae with a wide host range. It is commonly known as green scale or sometimes coffee green scale because it is a major pest of coffee crops throughout the world.

<i>Acyrthosiphon pisum</i> Species of true bug

Acyrthosiphon pisum, commonly known as the pea aphid, is a sap-sucking insect in the family Aphididae. It feeds on several species of legumes worldwide, including forage crops, such as pea, clover, alfalfa, and broad bean, and ranks among the aphid species of major agronomical importance. The pea aphid is a model organism for biological study whose genome has been sequenced and annotated.

<i>Enchophora sanguinea</i> Species of true bug

Enchophora sanguinea is a species of lantern bug, a type of hemipteran, found in Central and South America. It was first described by William Lucas Distant in 1887. They are 25 millimetres (1.0 in) long. Their colour varies, but is normally red to green; they have a scimitar-shaped process on their heads. They feed on the sap of trees, most commonly Simarouba amara, and they excrete honeydew out of their anuses.

<i>Eriosoma lanigerum</i> Species of true bug

Eriosoma lanigerum, the woolly apple aphid, woolly aphid or American blight, is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants.

<i>Tuberolachnus salignus</i> Species of true bug

Tuberolachnus salignus, or the giant willow aphid, is a species of aphid, in the genus Tuberolachnus. They are reputed to be the largest aphids, with a body length of up to 5.8mm. First described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1790, it feeds on many species of willow, and has one known host-specific parasite, Pauesia salignae.

References

  1. 1 2 Delabie JH (2001). "Trophobiosis Between Formicidae and Hemiptera (Sternorrhyncha and Auchenorrhyncha): an Overview" (PDF). Neotropical Entomology. 30 (4): 501–516. doi:10.1080/00222930150215378. S2CID   84918015.
  2. ↑ Maschwitz U, Dumpert K, Tuck KR (1986). "Ants feeding on anal exudate from tortricid larvae: a new type of trophobiosis". Journal of Natural History. 20 (5): 1041–1050. Bibcode:1986JNatH..20.1041M. doi:10.1080/00222938600770751.
  3. ↑ Shaaban, Basel; Seeburger, Victoria; Schroeder, Annette; Lohaus, Gertrud (24 January 2020). "Sugar, amino acid and inorganic ion profiling of the honeydew from different hemipteran species feeding on Abies alba and Picea abies". PLOS ONE. 15 (1): e0228171. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1528171S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228171 . PMC   6980476 . PMID   31978201.
  4. ↑ Elle Hunt (26 May 2021). "Sex-mad and spectacular: 17 incredible facts about cicadas". Guardian US.
  5. ↑ John Dodge; Noel Brennan (May 15, 2024). "Cicadas pee from trees. And they can urinate a lot, a new study finds". CBS NEWS.
  6. 1 2 Lee AK (1985-03-21). Evolutionary Ecology of Marsupials. Cambridge University Press. p. 33. ISBN   9780521252928 . Retrieved 25 August 2019.
  7. ↑ Fölling M, Knogge C, Böhme W (February 2001). "Geckos are milking honeydew-producing planthoppers in Madagascar". Journal of Natural History. 35 (2): 279–84. Bibcode:2001JNatH..35..279F. doi:10.1080/00222930150215378. S2CID   84918015.
  8. ↑ Ergot of Rye Archived 2018-08-09 at the Wayback Machine , APSnet.org, The American Phytopathological Society
  9. ↑ Peach DA, Gries R, Young N, Lakes R, Galloway E, Alamsetti SK, et al. (February 2019). "Aedes aegypti (L.) to Aphid Honeydew". Insects. 10 (2): 43. doi: 10.3390/insects10020043 . PMC   6409638 . PMID   30717169.
  10. ↑ Peach DA, Gries G (2019). "Mosquito phytophagy – sources exploited, ecological function, and evolutionary transition to haematophagy". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 168 (2): 120–136. doi: 10.1111/eea.12852 . ISSN   1570-7458.
  11. ↑ Koch H, Corcoran C, Jonker M (2011). "Honeydew Collecting in Malagasy Stingless Bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponini) and Observations on Competition with Invasive Ants" (PDF). African Entomology. 19 (1): 36–41. doi:10.4001/003.019.0111. S2CID   83522254. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-19. Closed Access logo transparent.svg
  12. ↑ Sidnei M, Noll FB, Zucchi R (2004). "Caste Flexibility and Variation According to the Colony Cycle in the Swarm-founding Wasp, Parachartergus Fraternus (Gribodo) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Epiponini)". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 77 (4): 470–83. doi:10.2317/E-40.1. S2CID   84967255.
  13. ↑ Meiners JM, Griswold TL, Harris DJ, Ernest SK (August 2017). "Bees without Flowers: Before Peak Bloom, Diverse Native Bees Find Insect-Produced Honeydew Sugars". The American Naturalist. 190 (2): 281–291. doi:10.1086/692437. PMID   28731796. S2CID   206004844.
  14. ↑ Faulkes A (1995). Edda. Everyman. pp. 18–19. ISBN   0-460-87616-3.
  15. ↑ Clauss JJ (1993). The Best of the Argonauts: The Redefinition of the Epic Hero in Book 1 of Apollonius's Argonautica. Hellenistic culture and society. Vol. 10. University of California Press. p. 170. ISBN   978-0-520-07925-0.
  16. ↑ Manna#Identifying manna
  17. ↑ "Exodus 16 :: King James Version (KJV)".
  18. ↑ Howard FW (2001). Insects on Palms. p. 154. ISBN   9780851997056 . Retrieved 25 August 2019.
  19. ↑ "Oak honey comes from Acorns". The Raw Honey Shop. Retrieved 2022-09-25.
  20. ↑ "Miel Morbihan Bretagne". L'Abeille de Lanvaux (in French). Retrieved 2022-09-25.
  21. ↑ Jolivet P (1992). Insects and Plants: Parallel Evolution & Adaptations, Second Edition. Sandhill Crane Press. p. 119. ISBN   9781877743108 . Retrieved 25 August 2019.
  22. ↑ "What Is Honeydew Honey? | How It's Produced & Benefits". 2020-08-25. Retrieved 2024-10-27.
  23. ↑ Seeburger, Victoria Charlotte; D'Alvise, Paul; Shaaban, Basel; Schweikert, Karsten; Lohaus, Gertrud; Schroeder, Annette; Hasselmann, Martin (2020). "The trisaccharide melezitose impacts honey bees and their intestinal microbiota". PLOS ONE. 15 (4): e0230871. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1530871S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230871 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   7147780 . PMID   32275718.
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