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Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any or all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on language and the ways it is used. It can overlap with the sociology of language, which focuses on the effect of language on society. Sociolinguistics overlaps considerably with pragmatics and is closely related to linguistic anthropology.
Ebonics is a term that was originally intended to refer to the language of all people descended from African descent, particularly in West Africa, the Caribbean, and North America. The term Ebonics was created in 1973 by a group of black scholars who disapproved of the negative terms being used to describe this type of language. Since the 1996 controversy over its use by the Oakland School Board, the term Ebonics has primarily been used to refer to the sociolect African-American English, a dialect distinctively different from Standard American English.
African-American English is the set of English sociolects spoken by most Black people in the United States and many in Canada; most commonly, it refers to a dialect continuum ranging from African-American Vernacular English to a more standard American English. Like all widely spoken language varieties, African-American English shows variation stylistically, generationally, geographically, in rural versus urban characteristics, in vernacular versus standard registers, etc. There has been a significant body of African-American literature and oral tradition for centuries.
William Labov is an American linguist widely regarded as the founder of the discipline of variationist sociolinguistics. He has been described as "an enormously original and influential figure who has created much of the methodology" of sociolinguistics.
African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is the variety of English natively spoken, particularly in urban communities, by most working- and middle-class African Americans and some Black Canadians. Having its own unique grammatical, vocabulary and accent features, AAVE is employed by middle-class Black Americans as the more informal and casual end of a sociolinguistic continuum. However, in formal speaking contexts, speakers tend to switch to more standard English grammar and vocabulary, usually while retaining elements of the non-standard accent. AAVE is widespread throughout the United States, but is not the native dialect of all African Americans, nor are all of its speakers African American.
In sociolinguistics, a sociolect is a form of language or a set of lexical items used by a socioeconomic class, profession, age group, or other social group.
A speech community is a group of people who share a set of linguistic norms and expectations regarding the use of language. The concept is mostly associated with sociolinguistics and anthropological linguistics.
In sociolinguistics, prestige is the level of regard normally accorded a specific language or dialect within a speech community, relative to other languages or dialects. Prestige varieties are language or dialect families which are generally considered by a society to be the most "correct" or otherwise superior. In many cases, they are the standard form of the language, though there are exceptions, particularly in situations of covert prestige. In addition to dialects and languages, prestige is also applied to smaller linguistic features, such as the pronunciation or usage of words or grammatical constructs, which may not be distinctive enough to constitute a separate dialect. The concept of prestige provides one explanation for the phenomenon of variation in form among speakers of a language or languages.
Gregory Riordan Guy is a linguist who specializes in the study of language variation and language diversity, including sociolinguistics, historical linguistics, phonetics, and phonology. He has a particular interest in the Brazilian Portuguese and Spanish languages.
John Russell Rickford is a Guyanese–American academic and author. Rickford is the J. E. Wallace Sterling Professor of Linguistics and the Humanities at Stanford University's Department of Linguistics and the Stanford Graduate School of Education, where he has taught since 1980. His book Spoken Soul: The Story of Black English, which he wrote together with his son, Russell J. Rickford, won the American Book Award in 2000.
Linguistic insecurity comprises feelings of anxiety, self-consciousness, or lack of confidence in the mind of a speaker surrounding their use of language. Often, this anxiety comes from speakers' belief that their speech does not conform to the perceived standard and/or the style of language expected by the speakers' interlocutor(s). Linguistic insecurity is situationally induced and is often based on a feeling of inadequacy regarding personal performance in certain contexts, rather than a fixed attribute of an individual. This insecurity can lead to stylistic, and phonetic shifts away from an affected speaker's default speech variety; these shifts may be performed consciously on the part of the speaker, or may be reflective of an unconscious effort to conform to a more prestigious or context-appropriate variety or style of speech. Linguistic insecurity is linked to the perception of speech varieties in any community, and so may vary based on socioeconomic class and gender. It is also especially pertinent in multilingual societies.
Variation is a characteristic of language: there is more than one way of saying the same thing in a given language. Variation can exist in domains such as pronunciation, lexicon, grammar, and other features. Different communities or individuals speaking the same language may differ from each other in their choices of which of the available linguistic features to use, and how often, and the same speaker may make different choices on different occasions.
African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a nonstandard dialect of English deeply embedded in the culture of the United States, including popular culture. It has been the center of controversy about the education of African-American youths, the role AAVE should play in public schools and education, and its place in broader society. The linguistic and cultural history of African Americans has been fostered and maintained in part through the Black church, including some lexicon and the call and response style of linguistic engagement. Artistic and cultural movements originating with African Americans, such as jazz and hip-hop, have also significantly showcased, influenced, or sometimes mainstreamed elements of AAVE in the broader American culture and even on the global stage. The dialect is also seen and heard in advertising.
Shana Poplack, is a Distinguished University Professor in the linguistics department of the University of Ottawa and three time holder of the Canada Research Chair in Linguistics. She is a leading proponent of variation theory, the approach to language science pioneered by William Labov. She has extended the methodology and theory of this field into bilingual speech patterns, the prescription-praxis dialectic in the co-evolution of standard and non-standard languages, and the comparative reconstruction of ancestral speech varieties, including African American vernacular English. She founded and directs the University of Ottawa Sociolinguistics Laboratory.
Walt Wolfram is an American sociolinguist specializing in social and ethnic dialects of American English. He was one of the early pioneers in the study of urban African American English through his work in Detroit in 1969. He is the William C. Friday Distinguished University Professor at North Carolina State University.
Linguistic profiling is the practice of identifying the social characteristics of an individual based on auditory cues, in particular dialect and accent. The theory was first developed by Professor John Baugh to explain discriminatory practices in the housing market based on the auditory redlining of prospective clientele by housing administrators. Linguistic profiling extends to issues of legal proceedings, employment opportunities, and education. The theory is frequently described as the auditory equivalent of racial profiling. The bulk of the research and evidence in support of the theory pertain to racial and ethnic distinctions, though its applicability holds within racial or ethnic groups, perceived gender and sexual orientation, and in distinguishing location of geographic origin.
Real-time sociolinguistics is a sociolinguistic research method concerned with observing linguistic variation and change in progress via longitudinal studies. Real-time studies track linguistic variables over time by collecting data from a speech community at multiple points in a given period. As a result, it provides empirical evidence for either stability or linguistic change.
Tracey Weldon is an American linguist who studies variationist sociolinguistics, Gullah, Quantitative Sociolinguistics, and African American English.
Sonja L. Lanehart is an American linguist and professor of linguistics in the College of Social and Behavioral Sciences at the University of Arizona who has advanced the study of language use in the African American community. Her work as a researcher, author, and editor includes African American English, education, literacy, identity, language variation, women's languages, intersectionality, and inclusivity within the African American community. Lanehart's sociolinguistic orientation prioritizes language as a phenomenon influenced by sociocultural and historical factors. She also utilizes the perspectives of Critical Race Theory and Black feminism in her work. Lanehart was the Brackenridge Endowed Chair in Literature and Humanities at the University of Texas at San Antonio from 2006 to 2019, and was selected by the Linguistic Society of America as a 2021 Fellow.
In the terminology of linguistic anthropology, linguistic racism, both spoken and written, is a mechanism that perpetuates discrimination, marginalization, and prejudice customarily based on an individual or community's linguistic background. The most evident manifestation of this kind of racism is racial slurs; however, there are covert forms of it. Linguistic racism also relates to the concept of "racializing discourses," which is defined as the ways race is discussed without being explicit but still manages to represent and reproduce race. This form of racism acts to classify people, places, and cultures into social categories while simultaneously maintaining this social inequality under a veneer of indirectness and deniability.
References
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- ↑ "New Members: Elected in 2021". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
- ↑ Rice, Patricia (2 February 2006). "Linguistic profiling: The sound of your voice may determine if you get that apartment or not". The Source. Washington University in St. Louis. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
- ↑ "Do You Speak American | Viewer's Guide". PBS. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
- ↑ "Producers". Talking Black in America. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
- ↑ Abadi, Mark (8 July 2018). "'Sorry to Bother You' is right — minorities are judged by the sound of their voice, and there's science to prove it". Business Insider. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
- ↑ Beachum, Lateshia; Shammas, Brittany (9 October 2020). "Black officers, torn between badge and culture, face uniquely painful questions and insults". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
- ↑ Rao, Sonia (6 July 2018). "'What's up with that white voice?': The tricky art of linguistic code-switching". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 5 August 2018. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
- ↑ "Black voices, white voices: the cost of accents". The Economist. 2 August 2018. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 23 August 2018. Retrieved 2021-01-14.
- ↑ Serhan, Yasmeen (31 March 2020). "The Case Against Waging 'War' on the Coronavirus". The Atlantic. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
- 1 2 3 "Get to Know Your Instructors: John Baugh". 2019 Linguistic Institute | University of California, Davis. 28 May 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
- ↑ Baugh, John (1983). Black Street Speech: Its History, Structure, and Survival. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-70743-6.
- ↑ Baugh, John (1999). Out of the Mouths of Slaves: African American Language and Educational Malpractice By John Baugh. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-70872-3.
- ↑ Baugh, John (2000). Beyond Ebonics: Linguistic Pride and Racial Prejudice. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512046-9. OCLC 41548315.
- ↑ Jefferson, Brandie (6 September 2022). "Baugh named to board of Oxford Dictionary of African American English". The Source. Washington University in St. Louis. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
- ↑ "ODAAE Project Team". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
- ↑ Baugh, John; Sherzer, Joel (1984). Language in Use: Readings in Sociolinguistics. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-522996-5. OCLC 850644109.
- ↑ Towards a Social Science of Language: Papers in Honor of William Labov, Volume 1: Variation and Change in Language and Society. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 1996. ISBN 1-55619-581-8.
- ↑ Towards a Social Science of Language: Papers in Honor of William Labov, Volume 2: Social Interaction and Discourse Structures. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 1997. ISBN 978-90-272-7601-8. OCLC 768761306.
- ↑ Hemphill, Evie; Lally, Caitlin (4 September 2018). "Wash U linguist analyzes American dialects, discrimination". St. Louis Public Radio. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
- 1 2 Purnell, Thomas; Idsardi, William; Baugh, John (March 1999). "Perceptual and Phonetic Experiments on American English Dialect Identification". Journal of Language and Social Psychology. 18 (1): 10–30. doi:10.1177/0261927X99018001002. S2CID 28519479 – via ResearchGate.
- ↑ Squires, Gregory D.; Chadwick, Jan (January 2006). "Linguistic Profiling: A Continuing Tradition of Discrimination in the Home Insurance Industry?". Urban Affairs Review. 41 (3): 400–415. doi:10.1177/1078087405281064. ISSN 1078-0874. S2CID 154136739.
- ↑ Leech, Tamara G.J.; Irby-Shasanmi, Amy; Mitchell, Anne L. (December 2018). ""Are you accepting new patients?" A pilot field experiment on telephone-based gatekeeping and Black patients' access to pediatric care". Health Services Research. 54 (Suppl 1): 234–242. doi:10.1111/1475-6773.13089. PMC 6341201 . PMID 30506767 – via ResearchGate.
- ↑ Bavan, Meena S. (2007). "Does Housing Discrimination Exist Based on the 'Color' of an Individual's Voice?". Cityscape. 9 (1): 93–107. SSRN 1089454 – via SSRN.
- ↑ Zimmerman, Gail Abbott (13 May 2017). "Professor's testimony has a strong impact on Cullen Davis' case". CBS News. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
- ↑ Shuy, Roger W. (2001), Schiffrin, Deborah; Tannen, Deborah; Hamilton, Heidi E. (eds.), "Discourse Analysis in the Legal Context", The Handbook of Discourse Analysis, Wiley, pp. 437–452, doi:10.1002/9780470753460.ch23, ISBN 978-0-631-20595-1 , retrieved 26 January 2021
- ↑ Davies, Dave (22 August 2017). "FBI Profiler Says Linguistic Work Was Pivotal In Capture Of Unabomber". NPR. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
- ↑ "Do You Speak American? | Linguistic Profiling". PBS. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
- ↑ Zentella, Ana Celia (December 2014). "TWB (Talking while Bilingual): Linguistic profiling of Latina/os, and other linguistic torquemadas". Latino Studies. 12 (4): 620–635. doi:10.1057/lst.2014.63. ISSN 1476-3435. S2CID 143525723 – via ResearchGate.
- ↑ Massey, Douglas S.; Lundy, Garvey (1 March 2001). "Use of Black English and Racial Discrimination in Urban Housing Markets: New Methods and Findings". Urban Affairs Review. 36 (4): 452–469. doi:10.1177/10780870122184957. ISSN 1078-0874. S2CID 153772577.
- ↑ "Schedule for Annual Conference in New York City, Jan. 3–6, 2019". American Dialect Society. 1 January 2019. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
- ↑ Erard, Michael (July 2002). "Language Matters". Legal Affairs. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
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