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Lemurs of Madagascar is a 2010 reference work and field guide for the lemurs of Madagascar, giving descriptions and biogeographic data for the known species. The primary contributor is Russell Mittermeier, president of Conservation International, and the cover art and illustrations were drawn by Stephen D. Nash. Currently in its third edition, the book provides details about all known lemur species, general information about lemurs and their history, and also helps travelers identify species they may encounter. Four related pocket field guides have also been released, containing color illustrations of each species, miniature range maps, and species checklists.
The first edition was reviewed favorably in the International Journal of Primatology, Conservation Biology, and Lemur News. Reviewers, including Alison Jolly, praised the book for its meticulous coverage of each species, numerous high-quality illustrations, and engaging discussion of lemur topics, including conservation, evolution, and the recently extinct subfossil lemurs. Each agreed that the book was an excellent resource for a wide audience, including ecotourists and lemur researchers. A lengthy review of the second edition was published in the American Journal of Primatology, where it received similar favorable comments, plus praise for its updates and enhancements. The third edition was reviewed favorably in Lemur News; the reviewer praised the expanded content of the book, but was concerned that the edition was not as portable as its predecessors.
The first edition identified 50lemur species and subspecies, compared to 71 in the second edition and 101 in the third. The taxonomy promoted by these books has been questioned by researchers, such as Ian Tattersall, who view these growing numbers of lemur species as insufficiently justified inflation of species numbers (taxonomic inflation).
Overview
Lemurs of Madagascar is published by Conservation International (CI), a non-profit conservation organization headquartered near Washington, D.C., and is intended as a field guide that identifies all of the known lemur species from Madagascar.[1] The first edition of Lemurs of Madagascar was published in 1994 and contained 356pages. The 520-page second edition was published in 2006 and is now officially out of print, having been followed by the 767-page third edition in the fall of 2010.[2]
For all three editions, Stephen D. Nash, winner of the 2004 American Society of Primatologists President's Award,[3] has been the illustrator and front cover artist. The lead author for all three editions is Russell A. Mittermeier, president of CI and a well-published primatologist, herpetologist and biological anthropologist.[4] In the first edition, four other authors were also listed: Ian Tattersall, a curator in the Division of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History; William R. Konstant, the Director of Conservation and Science at the Houston Zoo; David M. Meyers, a researcher and conservationist who has worked with CI, the World Wildlife Fund, and other conservation and development organizations; and Roderic B. Mast, marine biologist, primatologist, and the founding Director of CI's Madagascar Program.[5]
The second edition was authored by Mittermeier, Konstant, Tattersall, and Meyers, as well as seven new authors: Frank Hawkins, the Technical Director for CI in Madagascar; Edward E. Louis, Jr., the conservation geneticist for Omaha's Henry Doorly Zoo's Center for Conservation and Research; Olivier Langrand, CI's Senior Vice President for Africa and Madagascar; Jonah H. Ratsimbazafy, the Scientific Coordinator for the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust - Madagascar Program; Rodin Rasoloarison, a field researcher and research coordinator at the German Primate Center; Jörg U. Ganzhorn, professor in the Department of Animal Ecology and Conservation at the University of Hamburg and Chairman for the Madagascar section of the IUCN Species Survival Commission (IUCN/SSC) Primate Specialist Group since 1998; and Serge Rajaobelina, the President of Fanamby, a Malagasy non-governmental environmental organization.[4]
The list of authors changed again with the third edition. Returning authors included Mittermeier, Louis, Langrand, Hawkins, Rajaobelina, Ratsimbazafy, and Rasoloarison. New authors included Matthew Richardson, writer and member of the IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group; Christoph Schwitzer, the Head of Research at the Bristol Zoo Gardens; Anthony Rylands, a Senior Research Scientist at Conservation International and Deputy Chair of the IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group; Christian Roos, a geneticist at the German Primate Center; Peter M. Kappeler, a Professor of Sociobiology and Anthropology at the University of Göttingen in Germany; and James MacKinnon, the Senior Technical Director of Conservation International in Madagascar.[6]
The first edition followed a 1982 volume by Tattersall, entitled Primates of Madagascar. As a field guide, the Lemurs of Madagascar is "more portable and affordable,"[1] while offering updated information to assist lemur researchers and tourists in the identification of lemur species and subspecies, according to a 1996 review published in Lemur News.[7] All three editions cover the natural history and conservation status for each known species. They also discuss conservation strategies, lemur origins, extinct lemurs, and the history of discoveries made by early European naturalists. The books provide suggestions on where to see each species,[1] as well as checklists to help people keep track of their sightings.[7] The purpose of the book is defined in the "Introduction" as follows:
Conservation International and the Primate Specialist Group of the World Conservation Union's Species Survival Commission (IUCN/SSC) have long recognized Madagascar as one of their top priorities, and are pleased to present this guide to facilitate field identification of lemurs, to summarize available data on their ecology, distribution and conservation status, and to stimulate further interest in the survival of these animals in their natural habitats.
—Peter A. Seligmann & Russell A. Mittermeier, Lemurs of Madagascar, First Edition[8]
Four pocket field guides have also been published by CI, intended strictly to help people identify lemurs in the field by providing over 100 species illustrations. All illustrations, including the detailed cover art, were drawn by Nash. Checklists for their respective lemur species are included with these guides, along with thumbnail range maps for each species. The four pocket guides include two editions of Lemurs of Madagascar Pocket Identification Guide (out of print), Nocturnal Lemurs, and Diurnal and Cathemeral Lemurs.[9] The Nocturnal Lemurs booklet contains 65species from eight genera.[10]Diurnal and Cathemeral Lemurs hosts 34species and subspecies from seven genera, along with illustrations to show male and female fur color differences in the genus Eulemur and color morphs for the indri and ruffed lemur species.[11] A fifth and sixth pocket field guides are planned following the publication of the third edition of the field guide.[12]
Content
"[Ring-tailed lemur] males use their thorny spurs on their forearms to make small scars in tree trunks that they then anoint with secretions from their scent glands." —Lemurs of Madagascar, Second Edition
In the second and third editions, the inside of the front and back covers include a quick visual reference, with color-coded illustrations for each lemur type and colored tabs to help locate their corresponding sections.[14][15]
The "Introduction" in the first two editions was written by Peter A. Seligmann, Chairman of the Board and CEO of CI, and Mittermeier.[16][17] In the third edition, the "Introduction" was written only by Mittermeier.[18] In it, they emphasize the richness of Madagascar's primate diversity, summarize the conservation efforts and opportunities for preserving that diversity, and highlight recent discoveries, while also acknowledging the need for additional research.[16][17] The chapter entitled "Origins of Lemurs" ("Origin of the Lemurs" in the third edition) briefly summarizes the theories on how lemurs came to Madagascar and the difficulty in resolving the mystery.[19][20][21] "Discovery and Study of the Living Lemurs" reviews the history of exploration, field research, and taxonomic nomenclature of lemurs,[22][23][24] starting from the 1625 description of a ring-tailed lemur to contemporary research by Western and Malagasy scientists.[1] "The Extinct Lemurs" discusses the recently extinct subfossil lemurs, including the monkey lemurs, sloth lemurs, and koala lemurs.[25][26][27] "Conservation of Lemurs" details the threats lemurs face, such as habitat destruction and hunting for bushmeat, and conservation efforts aimed at their protection, from the in-situ and ex-situ programs of the Madagascar Fauna Group to the promise by Madagascar's former president Marc Ravalomanana to triple the country's protected areas over five years, known as the Durban Vision.[28][29][30] In the third edition, a new chapter was added, entitled "Madagascar's Ancient Geological History", written by Maarten de Wit from the University of Cape Town. In it, three billion years of geological and biological history are explored in detail.[31]
The majority of the book, including the chapter "The Living Lemurs" and separate sections on each taxonomic group of lemur, providing detailed accounts of all lemur species known up until the time of publication, from the tiny mouse lemurs to the large indri and diademed sifaka. In the first and second editions, the chapter "The Living Lemurs" is broken first into sections on families, and then into species clumped together by genus.[32][33] In the third edition, each family is assigned its own chapter number, separate from "The Living Lemurs" chapter, yet the order and layout are the same.[34] In the second and third editions, all pages within each family section are assigned a colored tab to match those in the quick visual reference inside the covers.[33][15] Each species subsection has a distribution map, an illustration or photo (if available), a list of common names in multiple languages (including Malagasy), and species information broken into five sections: "Identification", "Geographic Range", "Natural History", "Conservation Status", and "Where to See It".[32][33]
[The hairy-eared dwarf lemur] is absolutely one of the more difficult lemur species to find in the wild, and indeed many experts who have worked for decades in Madagascar have yet to see one. ... The best opportunities for viewing it are at the Analamazaotra Special Reserve and the Forêt de Vohidrazana near the village of Fanovana, approximately 12km east of Andasibe, although its observation in these areas remains very unpredictable.
—Mittermeier, et al., Lemurs of Madagascar, Second Edition[35]
The "Identification" section for each species provides descriptive information to help identify and distinguish species, including a detailed physical description, discussions of variation in size and coloration (morphometrics), and descriptions of distinguishing vocalizations. "Geographic Range" offers textual information to accompany the provided distribution map, although the authors note that ranges change due to habitat destruction and that species may be found in new localities outside of their known range. "Natural History" summarizes what is known about the behavior and ecology of each species,[3][15][14] such as the unusual feeding strategies of the aye-aye[36] or the nest-building behavior of the ruffed lemurs.[37] Estimated populations densities and distributions, life histories, diet, social structure, and other details are provided when known. For many species, little information is given due to a lack of research, while others have been studied extensively allowing for more elaborate detail. "Conservation Status" lists the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species assessment and protected areas in which a species can be found, while also discussing specific threats to each species, the effects of local fady (taboos), the future outlook for species survival, and its coverage within protected areas. Lastly, "Where to See It" aims to promote ecotourism by helping travelers find the best lemur watching sites that can be reached quickly and with the least effort. Suggested modes of transportation are sometimes mentioned as well.[3][15][14]
The appendices differ between editions. The first edition has two appendices. The first is entitled "Lemurs Present in Protected Areas" and discusses each region and domain of Madagascar while also providing basic information and lemur species content for each protected area.[38] The second appendix, "Alternative Names for Towns and Sites in Madagascar" spells out a few alternative French and Malagasy names for some of the larger town and cities in Madagascar.[39] In the second and third editions, Appendix A, "Maps of Madagascar", contains color maps that help locate towns, protected areas, topography, rivers, forest cover, regions, and lemur watching sites.[40][41] Appendix B, entitled "Biogeographic Regions and Floristic Domains of Madagascar" discusses the regions and domains of Madagascar.[42][43] Appendix C, "Key Sites for Watching Lemurs", covers characteristics and highlights of individual national parks, reserves, and regions for lemur watching.[44][45] The third edition added Appendix D, entitled "Primate-watching and Primate Life-listing". In it, primate-watching and primate life-listing (the act of recording personal first sightings of a species) are promoted while their benefits to conservation are discussed.[46]
All three editions provide a "References" section,[47][48][49] with the second edition listing approximately 500 scientific papers, books, reports, and dissertations used in the creation of the book.[48] The number of references jumped to over 1,100 in the third edition.[15] Following the "References", the first edition provides a section with the color plates.[50] In contrast, the second and third editions provides color illustrations throughout the book.[3]
Reception
In a 1996 review of the first edition in the International Journal of Primatology, Lisa Gould spoke favorably of the book, citing passages about lemur descriptions from the 17th and 18th centuries that she found entertaining and informative. She was particularly fascinated with Chapter four, "The Extinct Lemurs", and the reconstructions by Nash that accompanied the descriptions of morphology, behavior, and diet. She praised Nash's artwork as being one of the most enjoyable aspects of the book. The book was hailed as an excellent source for identifying lemur species for both tourists and researchers.[1] The book was also briefly reviewed in College & Research Libraries News by George Eberhart in April 1996. The review noted Conservation International's promotion of ecotourism while also providing a count of the book's illustrations: 35 color plates, 50 distribution maps, and 135 drawings of postures and behaviors.[51]
Babakotia radofilai, one of the extinct giant lemur species described in the chapter entitled "The Extinct Lemurs"
In the 1996 edition (volume 2) of Lemur News, Alison Jolly praised the first edition for its "contribution to knowledge in general" and "its effect on its intended audience." Like Gould, Jolly praised the work as a field guide, as well as Nash's high-quality illustrations. She noted the attraction of Nash's subfossil lemur reconstruction, claiming that it was "rapidly becoming one of the most pirated single book illustration on the primate lecture-slide circuit." Jolly went on to praise the thoroughness of the natural history information provided for each species, including recently described species, noting that the information covered existing knowledge better than any other published literature, even when only a single paragraph was provided for poorly known species. The book was recommended not only for lemur specialists, but also for tourists, hoping it would spark an interest in ecotourism in impoverished Madagascar. The checklist of species, as well as the information on where to most easily spot them, earned a special mention from Jolly, who could only boast seeing 30 of the 50 known species at that time. Finally, the "most significant and most appreciative" audience Jolly mentioned was the Malagasy researchers, to whom Mittermeier reportedly gave 50 copies of the book during a workshop in 1995.[7]
In a 1997 review from Conservation Biology by Joelisoa Ratsirarson, the book was referred to as a "remarkable achievement" for its up-to-date information, and for being the first comprehensive lemur field guide. Emphasizing many of the same highlights as Gould and Jolly, he went on to note the inclusion of captive management information, unpublished details, and the use of common names in English, French, German, and Malagasy. His critique focused on the organization of the illustrations in relation to the text, the lack of an index, and a desire for more information about the roles lemurs play in their ecosystem. Though he praised it for being useful to tourists, researchers, students, resource managers, and conservationists, he expressed concern over its lack of availability in the bookstores of Madagascar.[52]
The completely revised second edition of Lemurs of Madagascar was reviewed in detail in the American Journal of Primatology by Stacey Tecot. Each chapter, section, and appendix was thoroughly summarized, and as with the reviews of previous editions, the chapter on subfossil lemurs was noted as one of the more "fascinating" parts of the book, particularly due to its colorful and informative illustrations. Although the book received only praise, Tecot did suggest two additions for the next edition: the need for information about the processes of island biogeography and expansion on captive conservation programs aside from the Duke Lemur Center, particularly at the Lemur Conservation Foundation and St. Catherines Island. A subject index was also recommended, along with better referencing of the figures and illustrations. Otherwise, the book was praised as being better than other field guides due to its inclusion of seemingly obscure yet important details, such as how to get to lemur watching sites, travel time, where to stay, mentions of lesser-known sites, listings of species to be seen, best times to observe, and even, among other things, the number of habituated lemur groups in each area. Tecot noted that the lemur checklist promoted competitive lemur watching, similar to birdwatching, and that the color-coded sections assisted in "on-the-fly species identification." Although very satisfied with the information provided for each species, Tecot commended the promise made in this edition to more extensively cover the published literature in the upcoming third edition. Like its predecessor, the second edition was praised as an excellent tool for ecotourists and researchers. It was also noted for its attempt to promote ecotourism as a conservation strategy.[3]
This newer edition was also mentioned briefly in the 2006 edition (volume 11) of Lemur News. The publication announcement highlighted the extensive coverage of scientific information throughout a range of chapters and appendices. The edition is said to contain over 200 illustrations, including drawings, photos, and maps.[53]
The 2010 third edition was reviewed in Lemur News by Alex Dunkel. He praised the increased level of detail in the new edition, which adds additional information on geology, the history of lemur research, and numerous aspects of lemur biology. Efforts to conserve lemurs have faced steep challenges, Dunkel wrote, due to political and economic instability in Madagascar, and these challenges make the new edition especially important. However, he worried that the increased size of the book made it less portable than its predecessors.[54]
Collared brown lemurs were treated as a subspecies in the first edition, but elevated to full species status in the second.
While the first edition recognized 50lemur taxa (32species and 25subspecies), the second edition recognized 71 lemur taxa (68species and 5subspecies) just 12years later.[57] The second edition followed the recommendations of Colin Groves in the third edition of Mammal Species of the World from 2005 by recognizing newly identified nocturnal species and raising many former subspecies to species status.[58] For comparison, Tattersall's book Primates of Madagascar from 1982 listed only 20species and 29subspecies.[59] Following the publication of the second edition, Nick Garbutt recognized 87species and 5subspecies in his book Mammals of Madagascar.[60]
Not all lemur researchers agree with the species promotions supported by these books. Researchers such as Tattersall and Anne D. Yoder, director of the Duke Lemur Center, have raised concerns about taxonomic inflation.[58][61] In particular, Tattersall has noted a steep decline in polytypic lemur species, or species with defined subspecies, starting with the first edition of Lemurs of Madagascar and becoming more pronounced in the second edition. He noted that more than half of the new species added in the second edition were promoted subspecies and questioned whether Madagascar could produce so many monotypic species.[58]
Prior to the release of the third edition of Lemurs of Madagascar, many of the major contributors, as well as Colin Groves, teamed up in 2008 to compile an updated lemur species list, published under the title "Lemur diversity in Madagascar" in the International Journal of Primatology. In it, 99lemur taxa were recognized (97species and 3subspecies).[62] The third edition went on to recognize 101lemur taxa (97species and 6subspecies) and suggested that future research could reveal as many as 110 to 125 taxa.[18]
Related Research Articles
The indri, also called the babakoto, is one of the largest living lemurs, with a head-body length of about 64–72 cm and a weight of between 6 and 9.5 kg. It has a black and white coat and maintains an upright posture when climbing or clinging. It is monogamous and lives in small family groups, moving through the canopy, and is herbivorous, feeding mainly on leaves but also seeds, fruits, and flowers. The groups are quite vocal, communicating with other groups by singing, roaring and other vocalisations. Besides humans, it is the only mammal found that can use rhythm.
Lemurs are wet-nosed primates of the superfamily Lemuroidea, divided into 8 families and consisting of 15 genera and around 100 existing species. They are endemic to the island of Madagascar. Most existing lemurs are small, have a pointed snout, large eyes, and a long tail. They chiefly live in trees and are active at night.
The giant mouse lemurs are members of the strepsirrhine primate genus Mirza. Two species have been formally described; the northern giant mouse lemur and Coquerel's giant mouse lemur. Like all other lemurs, they are native to Madagascar, where they are found in the western dry deciduous forests and further to the north in the Sambirano Valley and Sahamalaza Peninsula. First described in 1867 as a single species, they were grouped with mouse lemurs and dwarf lemurs. In 1870, British zoologist John Edward Gray assigned them to their own genus, Mirza. The classification was not widely accepted until the 1990s, which followed the revival of the genus by American paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall in 1982. In 2005, the northern population was declared a new species, and in 2010, the World Wide Fund for Nature announced that a southwestern population might also be a new species.
The eastern lesser bamboo lemur, also known as the gray bamboo lemur, the gray gentle lemur, and the Mahajanga lemur is a small lemur endemic to Madagascar, with three known subspecies. As its name suggests, the eastern lesser bamboo lemur feeds mainly on bamboo. The lemurs of the genus Hapalemur have more manual dexterity and hand–eye coordination than most lemurs. They are vertical climbers and jump from stalk to stalk in thick bamboo forests.
Jolly's mouse lemur is a species of mouse lemur from Mananjary and Kianjavato in Madagascar. The species is named in honor of primatologist Alison Jolly.
Mittermeier's mouse lemur is a species of mouse lemur known only from Anjanaharibe-Sud Special Reserve in Madagascar.
Simmons' mouse lemur is a species of mouse lemur known only from Betampona Special Reserve, Analalava Special Community Reserve near Foulpointe, and Zahamena National Park in Madagascar.
The northern rufous mouse lemur, northern brown mouse lemur, or Tavaratra mouse lemur is found in northern Madagascar from the Ankarana Special Reserve in the west to the Manambato River in the northeast, and up to the Irodo River in the north of the Analamerana Special Reserve. The complete distribution range of M. tavaratra is still to be defined as some areas surrounding the described distribution have not been visited yet. For example, M. tavaratra has been reported to possibly occur from the Irodo up to the Montagne des Français. Its known distribution cover four protected areas – the Ankarana Special Reserve, and the Analamerana Special Reserve both managed by Madagascar National Parks, the Loky-Manambato protected area (Daraina), and the Andavakoeira-Andrafiamena protected area, both Managed by the NGO Fanamby
The small-toothed sportive lemur, or small-toothed weasel lemur, is a primate species in the family Lepilemuridae that—like all extant lemurs—is endemic to Madagascar. The species lives in dense rainforest in southeastern Madagascar, and can be found in Ranomafana and Andringitra National Parks. Described in 1894, it was considered either a subspecies or taxonomic synonym of the weasel sportive lemur throughout most of the 20th century. Phylogenetic studies not only support its species status, but also suggest that it is the only eastern Malagasy sportive lemur that is more closely related to western than to other eastern species.
The northern sportive lemur, also known as the Sahafary sportive lemur or northern weasel lemur, is a species of lemur in the family Lepilemuridae. It is endemic to Madagascar. As a result of severe ecological and human pressures, the lemur is classified as Critically Endangered (CR) by the IUCN Red List.
The collared brown lemur, also known as the red-collared brown lemur or red-collared lemur, is a medium-sized strepsirrhine primate and one of twelve species of brown lemur in the family Lemuridae. It is only found in south-eastern Madagascar. Like most species of lemur, it is arboreal, moving quadrupedally and occasionally leaping from tree to tree. Like other brown lemurs, this species is cathemeral, lives in social groups, primarily eats fruit, exhibits sexual dichromatism, and does not demonstrate female dominance. The species is listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and is threatened primarily by habitat loss.
The silky sifaka is a large lemur characterized by long, silky, white fur. It has a very restricted range in northeastern Madagascar, where it is known locally as the simpona. It is one of the rarest mammals on Earth. The silky sifaka is one of nine sifaka species, and one of four former subspecies of diademed sifaka (P. diadema). Studies in 2004 and 2007 compared external proportions, genetics, and craniodental anatomy supporting full species status, which has generally been accepted.
MacArthur's mouse lemur, or the Anjiahely mouse lemur, is a species of mouse lemur known only from Makira Natural Park in northeastern Madagascar.
The red-fronted lemur, also known as the red-fronted brown lemur or southern red-fronted brown lemur, is a species of lemur from Madagascar. Until 2001, it was considered a subspecies of the common brown lemur, E. fulvus. In 2001, E. fulvus was split into several separate species, including Eulemur rufus, in which this species was included. In 2008, E. rufus was split into two species, the red lemur and the red-fronted lemur. E. rufus covers the population on the west coast north of the Tsiribihina River and E. rufifrons covers the population on the west coast south of the Tsiribihina River and the population in eastern Madagascar. The species split was based on genetic and morphological evidence. Mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that E. rufifrons may be more closely related to the common brown lemur, white-headed lemur and Sanford's brown lemur than it is to E. rufus.
The gray-headed lemur, or gray-headed brown lemur, is a medium-sized primate, a cathemeral species of lemur in the family Lemuridae. Until a taxonomic revision in 2008, it was known as the white-collared brown lemur or white-collared lemur. It lives in south-eastern Madagascar. In 2005, satellite imagery estimates showed approximately 700 km2 (270 sq mi) of total remaining habitat within its geographic range. It is highly threatened by hunting and habitat loss, and was considered to be among the 25 most endangered primates in 2006–2008. It is currently listed as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to a highly restricted range, and has been named one of "The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates."
The red lemur, also known as the rufous brown lemur or northern red-fronted lemur, is a species of lemur from Madagascar. Until 2001, the species E. rufus was considered a subspecies of the common brown lemur, E. fulvus, after which it was classified as its own species. In December 2008, the species was split into two separate species, the red lemur, E. rufus, distributed in dry lowland forests in northwestern Madagascar, and the red-fronted lemur, E. rufifrons, distributed in southwest and eastern Madagascar. The species split was based on genetic and morphological evidence. Mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that E. rufifrons may be more closely related to the common brown lemur, white-headed lemur and Sanford's brown lemur than it is to E. rufus.
The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates is a list of highly endangered primate species selected and published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (SSC) Primate Specialist Group (PSG), the International Primatological Society (IPS), Global Wildlife Conservation (GWC), and Bristol Zoological Society (BZS). The IUCN/SSC PSG worked with Conservation International (CI) to start the list in 2000, but in 2002, during the 19th Congress of the International Primatological Society, primatologists reviewed and debated the list, resulting in the 2002–2004 revision and the endorsement of the IPS. The publication was a joint project between the three conservation organizations until the 2012–2014 list when BZS was added as a publisher. The 2018–2020 list was the first time Conservation International was not among the publishers, replaced instead by GWC. The list has been revised every two years following the biannual Congress of the IPS. Starting with the 2004–2006 report, the title changed to "Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates". That same year, the list began to provide information about each species, including their conservation status and the threats they face in the wild. The species text is written in collaboration with experts from the field, with 60 people contributing to the 2006–2008 report and 85 people contributing to the 2008–2010 report. The 2004–2006 and 2006–2008 reports were published in the IUCN/SSC PSG journal Primate Conservation,, since then they have been published as independent publications.
Lemurs were first classified in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus, and the taxonomy remains controversial today, with approximately 70 to 100 species and subspecies recognized, depending on how the term "species" is defined. Having undergone their own independent evolution on Madagascar, lemurs have diversified to fill many ecological niches normally filled by other types of mammals. They include the smallest primates in the world, and once included some of the largest. Since the arrival of humans approximately 2,000 years ago, lemurs have become restricted to 10% of the island, or approximately 60,000 square kilometers (23,000 sq mi), and many face extinction. Concerns over lemur conservation have affected lemur taxonomy, since distinct species receive increased conservation attention compared to subspecies.
Stephen David Nash is an English wildlife artist who primarily specialises on primates. He is currently based at the Stony Brook University on Long Island, New York, USA, in the Department of Anatomical Sciences where he works as a visiting research associate.
1 2 3 4 5 Tecot, S. (2007). "In reference to lemurs: a comprehensive field guide and call to action on behalf of the unique primates of Madagascar". American Journal of Primatology. 70 (2): 204–206. doi:10.1002/ajp.20472. S2CID86588793.
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!["[Ring-tailed lemur] males use their thorny spurs on their forearms to make small scars in tree trunks that they then anoint with secretions from their scent glands."
--Lemurs of Madagascar, Second Edition Lemur catta 004.jpg](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Lemur_catta_004.jpg/170px-Lemur_catta_004.jpg)
