Micronutrient deficiency

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Micronutrient deficiency
Alcoholic pellagra.jpg
The skin rash of pellagra, due to not enough niacin.

Micronutrient deficiency is defined as the sustained insufficient supply of vitamins and minerals needed for growth and development, as well as to maintain optimal health. Since some of these compounds are considered essentials (we need to obtain them from the diet), micronutrient deficiencies are often the result of an inadequate intake. However, it can also be associated to poor intestinal absorption, presence of certain chronic illnesses and elevated requirements.

Contents

Prevalence

Micronutrient deficiencies are considered a public health problem worldwide. For over 30 years it has been estimated that more than two billion people of all ages are affected by this burden, [1] while a recently published study based on individual-level biomarker data estimated that there are 372 million children aged 5 years and younger, and 1.2 billion non-pregnant women of reproductive age with one or more micronutrient deficiencies globally, affecting greatly Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. [2]

Women of reproductive age (including pregnant and lactating) as well as children and adolescents are at higher risk of micronutrient deficiencies due to their higher demands. Similarly, the elderly are among the most vulnerable populations, associated to reduced absorption and utilization, as well as poorer diets. [3] Vegans and people reducing animal-source foods in their diets, as recommended by many scientific studies and experts, are also at greater risk of some micronutrient deficiencies if they don't adequately consume supplements or foods substituting animal-sourced micronutrients. [4] [5] [6] [7]

The most commonly analyzed micronutrient deficiencies, and therefore the most prevalent, include [8] iodine, iron, [2] zinc, [2] calcium, selenium, fluorine, and vitamins A, B6, [9] B12, [10] B9 (folate) [2] and D, [8] with large variations between countries and populations. [2]

Impact

Micronutrient deficiencies are associated to short- and long-term consequences as clinical symptoms and signs will manifest in relation to the body stores for the specific micronutrient and the magnitude of the deficiency. Nonetheless, it has been well established that micronutrient deficiencies are major contributors to impaired growth and neurodevelopment, perinatal complications and increased risk of morbidity and mortality. It has also been associated with 10% of all children's deaths, [11] and are therefore of special concern to those involved with child welfare. Early childhood micronutrient deficiency leads to stunted growth and impaired cognitive development, which in turn can translate into reduced work capacity, productivity and overall well-being during adulthood. [12] [13]

Deficiencies can constrain physical and (neurocognitive) development and compromise health in various ways. [2] Beyond dangerous health conditions, they can also lead to less clinically notable reductions in energy level, mental clarity and overall capacity. [14] They not only affect the cognition of elderly and children but also that of adults. [15] [16] Micronutrients help to resist or to recover from infectious diseases which can have extensive health impacts. [17] [18]

Causes

Deficiencies of essential vitamins or minerals such as Vitamin A, iron, and zinc may be caused by long-term shortages of nutritious food or by infections such as intestinal worms. [19] They may also be caused or exacerbated when illnesses (such as diarrhoea or malaria) cause rapid loss of nutrients through feces or vomit. [20]

Interventions

There are several interventions to improve the micronutrient status including fortification of foods, supplementation and treatment of underlying infections. [21] Implementation of appropriate micronutrient interventions has several benefits, including improved cognitive development or enhanced cognition, increased child survival, and reduced prevalence of low birth weight. [22]

Plants

In plants a micronutrient deficiency (or trace mineral deficiency) is a physiological plant disorder which occurs when a micronutrient is deficient in the soil in which a plant grows. Micronutrients are distinguished from macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium and magnesium) by the relatively low quantities needed by the plant. [23]

A number of elements are known to be needed in these small amounts for proper plant growth and development. [24] Nutrient deficiencies in these areas can adversely affect plant growth and development. Some of the best known trace mineral deficiencies include: zinc deficiency, boron deficiency, iron deficiency, and manganese deficiency.

List of essential trace minerals for plants [25]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nutrition</span> Provision to cells and organisms to support life

Nutrition is the biochemical and physiological process by which an organism uses food to support its life. It provides organisms with nutrients, which can be metabolized to create energy and chemical structures. Failure to obtain sufficient nutrients causes malnutrition. Nutritional science is the study of nutrition, though it typically emphasizes human nutrition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vitamin</span> Nutrients required by organisms in small amounts

Vitamins are organic molecules that are essential to an organism in small quantities for proper metabolic function. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized in the organism in sufficient quantities for survival, and therefore must be obtained through the diet. For example, Vitamin C can be synthesized by some species but not by others; it is not considered a vitamin in the first instance but is in the second. Most vitamins are not single molecules, but groups of related molecules called vitamers. For example, there are eight vitamers of vitamin E: four tocopherols and four tocotrienols.

A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. The requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excreted by cells to create non-cellular structures, such as hair, scales, feathers, or exoskeletons. Some nutrients can be metabolically converted to smaller molecules in the process of releasing energy, such as for carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and fermentation products, leading to end-products of water and carbon dioxide. All organisms require water. Essential nutrients for animals are the energy sources, some of the amino acids that are combined to create proteins, a subset of fatty acids, vitamins and certain minerals. Plants require more diverse minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed through leaves. Fungi live on dead or living organic matter and meet nutrient needs from their host.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human nutrition</span> Provision of essential nutrients necessary to support human life and health

Human nutrition deals with the provision of essential nutrients in food that are necessary to support human life and good health. Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, food security, or a poor understanding of nutritional requirements. Malnutrition and its consequences are large contributors to deaths, physical deformities, and disabilities worldwide. Good nutrition is necessary for children to grow physically and mentally, and for normal human biological development.

Vitamin deficiency is the condition of a long-term lack of a vitamin. When caused by not enough vitamin intake it is classified as a primary deficiency, whereas when due to an underlying disorder such as malabsorption it is called a secondary deficiency. An underlying disorder can have 2 main causes:

A trace element is a chemical element of a minute quantity, a trace amount, especially used in referring to a micronutrient, but is also used to refer to minor elements in the composition of a rock, or other chemical substance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mineral (nutrient)</span> Chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform life functions

In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. However, the four major structural elements in the human body by weight (CHON), are usually not included in lists of major nutrient minerals. These four elements compose about 96% of the weight of the human body, and major minerals (macrominerals) and minor minerals compose the remainder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant nutrition</span> Study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for normal plant life

Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant growth and reproduction, plant metabolism and their external supply. In its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle, or that the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite. This is in accordance with Justus von Liebig’s law of the minimum. The total essential plant nutrients include seventeen different elements: carbon, oxygen and hydrogen which are absorbed from the air, whereas other nutrients including nitrogen are typically obtained from the soil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vegetarian nutrition</span> Nutritional and human health aspects of vegetarian diets

Vegetarian nutrition is the set of health-related challenges and advantages of vegetarian diets.

Micronutrients are essential dietary elements required by organisms in varying quantities throughout life to orchestrate a range of physiological functions to maintain health. Micronutrient requirements differ between organisms; for example, humans and other animals require numerous vitamins and dietary minerals, whereas plants require specific minerals. For human nutrition, micronutrient requirements are in amounts generally less than 100 milligrams per day, whereas macronutrients are required in gram quantities daily.

Food fortification or enrichment is the process of adding micronutrients to food. It can be carried out by food manufacturers, or by governments as a public health policy which aims to reduce the number of people with dietary deficiencies within a population. The predominant diet within a region can lack particular nutrients due to the local soil or from inherent deficiencies within the staple foods; the addition of micronutrients to staples and condiments can prevent large-scale deficiency diseases in these cases.

Zinc deficiency is defined either as insufficient zinc to meet the needs of the body, or as a serum zinc level below the normal range. However, since a decrease in the serum concentration is only detectable after long-term or severe depletion, serum zinc is not a reliable biomarker for zinc status. Common symptoms include increased rates of diarrhea. Zinc deficiency affects the skin and gastrointestinal tract; brain and central nervous system, immune, skeletal, and reproductive systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biofortification</span> Breeding crops for higher nutritional value

Biofortification is the idea of breeding crops to increase their nutritional value. This can be done either through conventional selective breeding, or through genetic engineering. Biofortification differs from ordinary fortification because it focuses on making plant foods more nutritious as the plants are growing, rather than having nutrients added to the foods when they are being processed. This is an important improvement on ordinary fortification when it comes to providing nutrients for the rural poor, who rarely have access to commercially fortified foods. As such, biofortification is seen as an upcoming strategy for dealing with deficiencies of micronutrients in low and middle-income countries. In the case of iron, the WHO estimated that biofortification could help curing the 2 billion people suffering from iron deficiency-induced anemia.

Mineral deficiency is a lack of the dietary minerals, the micronutrients that are needed for an organism's proper health. The cause may be a poor diet, impaired uptake of the minerals that are consumed, or a dysfunction in the organism's use of the mineral after it is absorbed. These deficiencies can result in many disorders including anemia and goitre. Examples of mineral deficiency include, zinc deficiency, iron deficiency, and magnesium deficiency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nutritional neuroscience</span> Scientific discipline

Nutritional neuroscience is the scientific discipline that studies the effects various components of the diet such as minerals, vitamins, protein, carbohydrates, fats, dietary supplements, synthetic hormones, and food additives have on neurochemistry, neurobiology, behavior, and cognition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vegan nutrition</span> Nutritional and human health aspects of vegan diets

Vegan nutrition refers to the nutritional and human health aspects of vegan diets. A well-planned, balanced vegan diet is suitable to meet all recommendations for nutrients in every stage of human life. Vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fiber, magnesium, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, iron, and phytochemicals; and lower in calories, saturated fat, cholesterol, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B12.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zinc deficiency (plant disorder)</span>

Zinc deficiency occurs when plant growth is limited because the plant cannot take up sufficient quantities of this essential micronutrient from its growing medium. It is one of the most widespread micronutrient deficiencies in crops and pastures worldwide and causes large losses in crop production and crop quality.

In general, cognitive support diets are formulated to include nutrients that have a known role in brain development, function and/or maintenance, with the goal of improving and preserving mental processes such as attentiveness, short-term and long-term memory, learning, and problem solving. Currently, there is very little conclusive research available regarding cat cognition as standardized tests for evaluating cognitive ability are less established and less reliable than cognitive testing apparatus used in other mammalian species, like dogs. Much of what is known about feline cognition has been inferred from a combination of owner-reported behaviour, brain necropsies, and comparative cognitive neurology of related animal models. Cognition claims appear primarily on kitten diets which include elevated levels of nutrients associated with optimal brain development, although there are now diets available for senior cats that include nutrients to help slow the progression of age-related changes and prevent cognitive decline. Cognition diets for cats contain a greater portion of omega-3 fatty acids, especially docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) as well as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and usually feature a variety of antioxidants and other supporting nutrients thought to have positive effects on cognition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zinc in biology</span> Use of Zinc by Organisms

Zinc is an essential trace element for humans and other animals, for plants and for microorganisms. Zinc is required for the function of over 300 enzymes and 1000 transcription factors, and is stored and transferred in metallothioneins. It is the second most abundant trace metal in humans after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes.

References

  1. ↑ WHO. National strategies for overcoming micronutrient malnutrition. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1991.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Stevens, Gretchen A.; Beal, Ty; Mbuya, Mduduzi N. N.; Luo, Hanqi; Neufeld, Lynnette M.; Addo, O. Yaw; Adu-Afarwuah, Seth; Alayón, Silvia; Bhutta, Zulfiqar; Brown, Kenneth H.; Jefferds, Maria Elena; Engle-Stone, Reina; Fawzi, Wafaie; Hess, Sonja Y.; Johnston, Robert; Katz, Joanne; Krasevec, Julia; McDonald, Christine M.; Mei, Zuguo; Osendarp, Saskia; Paciorek, Christopher J.; Petry, Nicolai; Pfeiffer, Christine M.; Ramirez-Luzuriaga, Maria J.; Rogers, Lisa M.; Rohner, Fabian; Sethi, Vani; Suchdev, Parminder S.; Tessema, Masresha; Villapando, Salvador; Wieringa, Frank T.; Williams, Anne M.; Woldeyahannes, Meseret; Young, Melissa F. (1 November 2022). "Micronutrient deficiencies among preschool-aged children and women of reproductive age worldwide: a pooled analysis of individual-level data from population-representative surveys". The Lancet Global Health. 10 (11): e1590–e1599. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(22)00367-9 . ISSN   2214-109X. PMID   36240826. S2CID   252857990.
  3. ↑ Hwalla, N., Al Dhaheri, A., Radwan, H., Alfawaz, H., Fouda, M., Al‐Daghri, N., Zaghloul, S. and Blumberg, J., 2017. The Prevalence of Micronutrient Deficiencies and Inadequacies in the Middle East and Approaches to Interventions. Nutrients, 9(3), p.229.
  4. ↑ Parlasca, Martin C.; Qaim, Matin (5 October 2022). "Meat Consumption and Sustainability". Annual Review of Resource Economics. 14 (1): 17–41. doi: 10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340 .
  5. ↑ Barr, Susan I; Rideout, Candice A (1 July 2004). "Nutritional considerations for vegetarian athletes". Nutrition. 20 (7): 696–703. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2004.04.015. ISSN   0899-9007. PMID   15212753.
  6. ↑ Bakaloudi, Dimitra Rafailia; Halloran, Afton; Rippin, Holly L.; Oikonomidou, Artemis Christina; Dardavesis, Theodoros I.; Williams, Julianne; Wickramasinghe, Kremlin; Breda, Joao; Chourdakis, Michail (May 2021). "Intake and adequacy of the vegan diet. A systematic review of the evidence". Clinical Nutrition. 40 (5): 3503–3521. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.11.035 . PMID   33341313. S2CID   229341062.
  7. ↑ Thiagarajan, Kamala. "Is a vegan diet healthy for children?". BBC. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
  8. 1 2 Theodore H Tulchinsky (2010). "Micronutrient Deficiency Conditions: Global Health Issues". Public Health Reviews. BioMed Central (Springer). 32: 243–255. doi: 10.1007/BF03391600 . S2CID   74453574.
  9. ↑ Benton, David (January 2013). "To establish the parameters of optimal nutrition do we need to consider psychological in addition to physiological parameters?". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 57 (1): 6–19. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201200477. PMID   23038656. The decarboyxlase enzymes have pyridoxal phosphate as a coenzyme, the form in which vitamin B6 occurs most commonly in the diet. Yet there is evidence of marginal intakes of this vitamin: e.g. using a biochemical measure of pyridoxal phosphate status there was a subgroup of about 10% of British school children who were deficient [89]. In young British adults 27.7% of males and 36.6% of females were deficient as judged by the same measure
  10. ↑ Venkatramanan, Sudha; Armata, Ilianna E; Strupp, Barbara J; Finkelstein, Julia L (1 September 2016). "Vitamin B-12 and Cognition in Children". Advances in Nutrition. 7 (5): 879–888. doi:10.3945/an.115.012021. ISSN   2161-8313. PMC   5015033 . PMID   27633104. Despite the high prevalence of vitamin B-12 insufficiency and associated risk of adverse cognitive outcomes in children, to our knowledge, no studies to date have been conducted to examine the effects of vitamin B-12 supplementation on cognition in children.
  11. ↑ Nutrition in the first 1,000 days: State of the world's mothers 2012 (PDF). Westport, CT: Save the Children. 2012. p. 16. ISBN   978-1-888393-24-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 May 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
  12. ↑ Adair, L. S., Fall, C. H., Osmond, C., Stein, A. D., Martorell, R., Ramirez-Zea, M., et al. (2013). Associations of linear growth and relative weight gain during early life with adult health and human capital in countries of low and middle income: Findings from five birth cohort studies. Lancet, 382, 525–534.
  13. ↑ Mattei, Davide; Pietrobelli, Angelo (June 2019). "Micronutrients and Brain Development". Current Nutrition Reports. 8 (2): 99–107. doi: 10.1007/s13668-019-0268-z . PMID   30953290. S2CID   96448765.
  14. ↑ "Micronutrients". www.who.int. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
  15. ↑ Muscaritoli, Maurizio (2021). "The Impact of Nutrients on Mental Health and Well-Being: Insights From the Literature". Frontiers in Nutrition. 8: 656290. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.656290 . ISSN   2296-861X. PMC   7982519 . PMID   33763446.
  16. ↑ Enderami, Athena; Zarghami, Mehran; Darvishi-Khezri, Hadi (1 October 2018). "The effects and potential mechanisms of folic acid on cognitive function: a comprehensive review". Neurological Sciences. 39 (10): 1667–1675. doi:10.1007/s10072-018-3473-4. ISSN   1590-3478. PMID   29936555. S2CID   49421574.
  17. ↑ "Micronutrient Facts". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1 February 2022. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
  18. ↑ James, Philip T; Ali, Zakari; Armitage, Andrew E; Bonell, Ana; Cerami, Carla; Drakesmith, Hal; Jobe, Modou; Jones, Kerry S; Liew, Zara; Moore, Sophie E; Morales-Berstein, Fernanda; Nabwera, Helen M; Nadjm, Behzad; Pasricha, Sant-Rayn; Scheelbeek, Pauline; Silver, Matt J; Teh, Megan R; Prentice, Andrew M (1 July 2021). "The Role of Nutrition in COVID-19 Susceptibility and Severity of Disease: A Systematic Review". The Journal of Nutrition. 151 (7): 1854–1878. doi:10.1093/jn/nxab059. PMC   8194602 . PMID   33982105.
  19. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-05-23. Retrieved 2013-04-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  20. ↑ The Development of Concepts of Malnutrition, Journal of Nutrition, 132:2117S-2122S, July 1, 2002.
  21. ↑ Campos Ponce, M., Polman, K., Roos, N., Wieringa, F., Berger, J. and Doak, C., 2018. What Approaches are Most Effective at Addressing Micronutrient Deficiency in Children 0–5 Years? A Review of Systematic Reviews. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 23(S1), pp.4-17.
  22. ↑ Bhutta, Z. A., Das, J. K., Rizvi, A., Gaffey, M. F., Walker, N., Horton, S., et al. (2013). Evidence-based interventions for improvement of maternal and child nutrition: What can be done and at what cost? Lancet, 382, 452–477.
  23. ↑ Mortvedt, John J. (31 August 1999). "Chapter 2: Bioavailability of Micronutrients". In Malcolm E. Sumner (ed.). Handbook of Soil Science. CRC Press. ISBN   978-0-8493-3136-7.
  24. ↑ A Companion to Plant Physiology, Fourth Edition. Wade Berry, UCLA. Topic 5.1 Symptoms of Deficiency In Essential Minerals. Sinauer Publishing.
  25. ↑ Marschner, Petra, ed. (2012). Marschner's mineral nutrition of higher plants (3rd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. p. 191. ISBN   9780123849052.
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