Nat Turner's Rebellion, historically known as the Southampton Insurrection, was a slave rebellion that took place in Southampton County, Virginia, in August 1831. Led by Nat Turner, the rebels, made up of enslaved African Americans, killed between 55 and 65 White people, making it the deadliest slave revolt for the latter racial group in U.S. history. The rebellion was effectively suppressed within a few days, at Belmont Plantation on the morning of August 23, but Turner survived in hiding for more than 30 days afterward.
There was widespread fear among the White population in the rebellion's aftermath. Militias and mobs killed as many as 120 enslaved people and free African Americans in retaliation. After trials, the Commonwealth of Virginia executed 56 enslaved people accused of participating in the rebellion, including Turner himself; many Black people who had not participated were also persecuted in the frenzy. Because Turner was educated and a preacher, Southern state legislatures passed new laws prohibiting the education of enslaved people and free Blacks, restricting rights of assembly and other civil liberties for free Blacks, and requiring White ministers to be present at all worship services.
Nat Turner was enslaved in Southampton County, Virginia in the early 19th century.[2][3] He thought that revolutionary violence would force Whites to acknowledge the brutality of slavery. Turner said he wanted to spread "terror and alarm" among Whites.[4]
Turner began communicating his plans to a small circle of trusted fellow slaves. "All his initial recruits were other slaves from his neighborhood".[5] These scattered men had to find ways to communicate their intentions without revealing the plot. Songs may have tipped the neighborhood members to movements: "It is believed that one of the ways Turner summoned fellow conspirators to the woods was through the use of particular songs."[6] According to author Terry Bisson, Turner entrusted his wife, Cherry, with "his most secret plans and papers".[7] According to a report by James Trezvant immediately following the uprising, Cherry said that Nat had been "digesting" a plan for the revolt "for years".[8]
Turner eagerly anticipated God's signal to "slay my enemies with their own weapons".[9] He began preparations for an uprising against the slaveholders in Southampton County. Turner said, "I communicated the great work laid out to do, to four in whom I had the greatest confidence": fellow slaves Henry, Hark, Nelson, and Sam.[9]
Rebellion
Beginning in February 1831, Turner interpreted atmospheric conditions as signs to prepare for the revolt. An annular solar eclipse on February 12, 1831, was visible in Virginia and much of the southeastern United States; Turner envisioned this as a Black man's hand reaching over the sun.[10] Illness prevented Turner from starting the rebellion as planned on Independence Day, July 4, 1831. The conspirators used the delay to extend planning.[11] On August 13, an atmospheric disturbance made the Virginia sun appear bluish-green, possibly the result of a volcanic plume produced by the eruption of Ferdinandea Island off the coast of Sicily.[12] Turner took this as a divine signal and started the rebellion a week later, on August 21.[2][12]
The rebellion expanded from several trusted slaves to over 70 enslaved and free Blacks, some of whom were on horseback.[13][14] They were armed with knives, hatchets, and blunt instruments; firearms were too difficult to collect and would have drawn unwanted attention.[15]
The rebels killed White people without discriminating by age or sex.[16][17] Turner's slaveowner and his family were the first to be killed. The rebels then traveled from house to house, freeing slaves and killing Whites.[15] Historian Stephen B. Oates writes that Turner called on his group to "kill all the white people".[18]
According to the Richmond Enquirer, "Turner declared that 'indiscriminate slaughter was not their intention after they attained a foothold, and was resorted to in the first instance to strike terror and alarm.'"[19] A few homes were spared "because Turner believed the poor White inhabitants 'thought no better of themselves than they did of negroes.'"[18] The rebels also avoided the Giles Reese plantation, even though it was en route, likely because Turner wanted to keep his wife and children safe.[20] Turner confessed to killing only one person, Margaret Whitehead, whom he killed with a blow from a fence post.[15] The last house to be attacked was the Rebecca Vaughan House.
Belmont plantation, where the rebellion was suppressed
The state militia suppressed the rebellion at Belmont Plantation on the morning of August 23.[21] The rebels killed between 55 and 65 White people before being defeated by the militia, making it the deadliest slave revolt in U.S. history.[18][3][22] The militia had twice the manpower of the rebels and three companies of artillery.[23] Turner was not captured and survived in hiding for more than 30 days afterward.[21]
Retaliation
Within a day of suppressing the rebellion, the local militia was joined by detachments from the USSNatchez and USSWarren in Norfolk and militias from neighboring counties in Virginia and North Carolina.[23] Brigadier General William Henry Brodnax commanded the Virginia militia.
In Southampton County, Blacks suspected of participating in the rebellion were beheaded by the militia, and "their severed heads were mounted on poles at crossroads as a grisly form of intimidation".[24] A local road (now Virginia State Route 658) was called "Blackhead Signpost Road" after it became the site of one such display.[25][26]
Rumors quickly spread that the slave revolt had spread as far south as Alabama. Fears led to reports in North Carolina of slave "armies" on highways, burning and massacring the White inhabitants of Wilmington, North Carolina, and marching on the state capital.[18] The fear and alarm resulted in White violence against Blacks on flimsy pretenses. The editor of the Richmond Whig described the scene as "the slaughter of many blacks without trial and under circumstances of great barbarity".[27] The violence continued for two weeks after the rebellion. General Eppes ordered a halt to the killing:
He will not specify all the instances that he is bound to believe have occurred but pass in silence what has happened, with the expression of his deepest sorrow, that any necessity should be supposed to have existed, to justify a single act of atrocity. But he feels himself bound to declare, and hereby announces to the troops and citizens, that no excuse will be allowed for any similar acts of violence, after the promulgation of this order.[28]
In a letter to the New York Evening Post, Reverend G. W. Powell wrote that "many negroes are killed every day. The exact number will never be known."[29] A company of militia from Hertford County, North Carolina, reportedly killed forty Blacks in one day and took $23 and a gold watch from the dead.[24] Captain Solon Borland, leading a contingent from Murfreesboro, North Carolina, condemned the acts "because it was tantamount to theft from the White owners of the slaves".[24]
Modern historians concur that the militias and mobs killed as many as 120 Blacks, most of whom were not involved with the rebellion.[30][31][32]
Capture
Discovery of Nat Turner, c. 1884 wood engraving by William Henry Shelton, illustrating Benjamin Phipps's capture of w:Nat Turner.
Turner eluded capture for six weeks but remained in Southampton County. According to Terry Bisson, Turner's wife Cherry was "beaten and tortured in an attempt to get her to reveal his plans and whereabouts."[7] After a raid on the Reese plantation, the Richmond Constitutional Whig reported on September 26 that "some papers [were] given up by his wife, under the lash."[33] According to The Authentic and Impartial Narrative, also published in 1831, journal entries by Turner were "in her possession after Nat's escape."[34]
On October 30, Benjamin Phipps, a farmer, discovered Turner hiding in Southampton County in a depression in the earth created by a large, fallen tree covered with fence rails.[35] Around 1 p.m. on October 31, Turner arrived at the prison in Jerusalem.[33] While awaiting trial, he confessed knowledge of the rebellion to attorney and slavery apologistThomas R. Gray.[36]
Trials and executions
Dozens of suspected rebels were tried by courts specially convened for the rebellion. Turner was tried on November 5, 1831, for "conspiring to rebel and making insurrection", and was convicted and sentenced to death.[37][38] His attorney was James Strange French. James Trezvant served on the jury. Turner was hanged on November 11, 1831, in the county seat of Jerusalem, Virginia (now Courtland).[39] According to some sources, he was beheaded to deter further rebellion.[40][41] The body was dissected and flayed, and the skin used to make souvenir purses.[42][43] In October 1897, Virginia newspapers reported that Dr. H. U. Stephenson of Toano, Virginia, was using the skeleton as a medical specimen.[44]
Most of Turner's alleged conspirators were tried in Southampton County, with some trials in neighboring Sussex County or other nearby counties. French represented many of the defendants, along with William Henry Brodnax and Meriwether Brodnax.[45] 30 slaves were convicted, of whom 18 were hanged and 12 were sold out of state; 15 were acquitted.[35] Four of the five free Blacks tried were acquitted; one was hanged.[46]
During the rebellion, the Virginia General Assembly targeted free Blacks with an African relocation bill, and a police bill denying them trials by jury and criminal punishment by slavery and relocation.[47] The General Assembly received petitions from at least seven slave owners asking to be compensated for slaves lost without trial because of the insurrection; they were all rejected.[45]
The General Assembly debated the future of slavery the following spring. Some urged gradual emancipation, but the pro-slavery side prevailed after Virginia's leading intellectual, Thomas Roderick Dew, president of the College of William and Mary, published "a pamphlet defending the wisdom and benevolence of slavery, and the folly of its abolition".[48] Laws were passed in all slave states except Maryland, Kentucky, and Tennesseecriminalizing teaching Blacks to read and write, and restricting Blacks from holding religious meetings without a licensed White minister.[49][50]
Other Southern slave-holding states also enacted legal restrictions on Black activities.[51] Possession of abolitionist publications was criminalized in Virginia and other Southern states.[52]
Aftermath
On September 3, 1831, William Lloyd Garrison published an article, "The Insurrection", in the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator.[53] On September 10, 1831, The Liberator published excerpts from a letter to the editor saying that many people in the South believed the newspaper had a link to the revolt and that if Garrison were to go to the South, he "would not be permitted to live long... he would be taken away, and no one is the wiser for it... if Mr. Garrison were to go to the South, he would be dispatched immediately... [an] opinion expressed by persons at the South, repeatedly."[54]
In November 1831, Thomas R. Gray published The Confessions of Nat Turner, based on research he conducted while Turner was in hiding and from conversations with Turner before the trial. The pamphlet sold 40,000 to 50,000 copies, making it a noted source about the rebellion at the time.[55] But a November 25, 1831, review of the publication by The Richmond Enquirer said:
The pamphlet has one defect—we mean its style. The confession of the culprit is given, as it were, from his lips—(and when read to him, he admitted its statements to be correct)—but the language is far superior to what Nat Turner could have employed—Portions of it are even eloquently and classically expressed.—This is calculated to cast some shade of doubt over the authenticity of the narrative, and to give the Bandit a character for intelligence which he does not deserve, and ought not to have received.—In all other respects, the confession appears to be faithful and true.[56]
Gray's work is the primary historical document about Turner but some modern historians, specifically David F. Allmendinger Jr., have also questioned the validity of his portrayal of Turner.[57][58]
Nat Turner's Rebellion as depicted in Samuel Warner's Authentic and Impartial Narrative of the Tragical Scene, published in 1831,
In the aftermath of the revolt, Whites did not try to interpret Turner's motives and ideas.[4] Antebellum enslavers were shocked by the rebellion and feared further slave violence; to them, Turner became "a symbol of terrorism and violent retribution."[18] Images were published depicting armed Black men attacking White men, women, and children; these " haunted White southerners and showed slave owners how vulnerable they were."[59] Northern and Southern states shared many of the same fears; a proposal to create a college for African Americans in New Haven, Connecticut was overwhelmingly rejected in the New Haven Excitement.
The fear Turner's rebellion caused and the concerns raised in the emancipation debates that followed resulted in politicians and writers defining "slavery as a positive good";[60] Thomas Dew was among those writers.[61] Other Southern writers began to promote a paternalistic ideal of improved Christian treatment of slaves, in part to avoid such rebellions. Dew and others believed they were civilizing Blacks, who were then still mostly American-born through slavery. The writings were collected in The Pro-Slavery Argument, As Maintained by the Most Distinguished Writers of the Southern States (1853).
Some Virginians wanted to remove all Blacks from the state Tidewater and Piedmont regions or deport all from the state.[62] In 1852, the Virginia branch of the American Colonization Society sent 243 Black Virginians to Liberia.[62]
Other perspectives
African Americans have generally regarded Turner as a resistance hero for avenging the suffering of Africans and African Americans.[18] James H. Harris, who has written extensively about the history of the Black church, says that the revolt "marked the turning point in the black struggle for liberation." According to Harris, Turner believed that "only a cataclysmic act could convince the architects of a violent social order that violence begets violence."[63]
In an 1843 speech at the National Negro Convention, Henry Highland Garnet, a former slave and active abolitionist, described Nat Turner as "patriotic", saying that "future generations will remember him among the noble and brave."[64] In 1861, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, a White Northern writer, praised Turner in a seminal article published in the Atlantic Monthly. He described Turner as a man "who knew no book but the Bible, and that by heart who devoted himself soul and body to the cause of his race."[65]
In 1988, Turner was included in the Black Americans of Achievement biography series for children, with the book Nat Turner: Slave Revolt Leader by Terry Bisson.[66] The book's introduction was written by Coretta Scott King.
The sword Turner is believed to have used in the rebellion is displayed at the Southampton County Courthouse.[67] In 1991, the Virginia Department of Historic Resources dedicated the "Nat Turner Insurrection" historic marker on Virginia State Route 30, near Courtland, Virginia.[68] In 2021, the Virginia Department of Cultural Resources dedicated the "Blackhead Signpost Road" historic marker at the intersection of Virginia State Route 35 and Meherrin Road.[25] Nat Turner's Rebellion is celebrated as part of Black August.[69]
In response to Styron's novel, ten African-American writers published a collection of essays, William Styron's The Confessions of Nat Turner: Ten Black Writers Respond (1968).[26]
Chance The Rapper's song "How Great" refers to Turner's rebellion, along with the 1805 slave revolt at Chatham Manor, in the line, "Hosanna Santa invoked and woke up enslaved people from Southampton to Chatham Manor."[73]
In the early 1990s, hip hop artist Tupac Shakur spoke in interviews about Nat Turner and his admiration for his spirit against oppression. Shakur also honored Turner with a cross tattoo on his back "EXODUS 1831", referring to the year Turner led the rebellion.[74]
Brodhead, Richard H. "Millennium, Prophecy and the Energies of Social Transformation: The Case of Nat Turner." in Imagining the End: Visions of Apocalypse from the Ancient Middle East to Modern America. A. Amanat and M. Bernhardsson, editors. London: I. B. Tauris, 2002. pp.212–33. ISBN978-1860647246
Nishikawa, Kinohi. "The Confessions of Nat Turner." The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Multiethnic American Literature, 5 volumes. Emmanuel S. Nelson, ed. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2005. pp.497–98. ISBN978-0313330599
A slave rebellion is an armed uprising by slaves, as a way of fighting for their freedom. Rebellions of slaves have occurred in nearly all societies that practice slavery or have practiced slavery in the past. A desire for freedom and the dream of successful rebellion is often the greatest object of song, art, and culture amongst the enslaved population. These events, however, are often violently opposed and suppressed by slaveholders.
Nat Turner was an enslaved Black carpenter and preacher who led a four-day rebellion of both enslaved and free Black people in Southampton County, Virginia in August 1831.
The legal institution of human chattel slavery, comprising the enslavement primarily of Africans and African Americans, was prevalent in the United States of America from its founding in 1776 until 1865, predominantly in the South. Slavery was established throughout European colonization in the Americas. From 1526, during the early colonial period, it was practiced in what became Britain's colonies, including the Thirteen Colonies that formed the United States. Under the law, an enslaved person was treated as property that could be bought, sold, or given away. Slavery, except as a punishment for crime, lasted in about half of U.S. states until abolition in 1865, and issues concerning slavery seeped into every aspect of national politics, economics, and social custom. In the decades after the end of Reconstruction in 1877, many of slavery's economic and social functions were continued through segregation, sharecropping, and convict leasing. Slavery as a punishment for crime is still legal in the United States.
David Walker was an American abolitionist, writer, and anti-slavery activist. Though his father was enslaved, his mother was free; therefore, he was free as well. In 1829, while living in Boston, Massachusetts, with the assistance of the African Grand Lodge, he published An Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, a call for black unity and a fight against slavery.
Gabriel's Rebellion was a planned slave rebellion in the Richmond, Virginia, area in the summer of 1800. Information regarding the revolt was leaked before its execution, and Gabriel, an enslaved blacksmith who planned the event, and twenty-five of his followers were hanged.
The Stono Rebellion was a slave revolt that began on 9 September 1739, in the colony of South Carolina. It was the largest slave rebellion in the Southern Colonial era, with 25 colonists and 35 to 50 African slaves killed. The uprising's leaders were likely from the Central African Kingdom of Kongo, as they were Catholic and some spoke Portuguese.
Herbert Aptheker was an American Marxist historian and political activist. He wrote more than 50 books, mostly in the fields of African-American history and general U.S. history, most notably, American Negro Slave Revolts (1943), a classic in the field. He also compiled the 7-volume Documentary History of the Negro People (1951–1994). In addition, he compiled a wide variety of primary documents supporting study of African-American history. He was the literary executor for W. E. B. Du Bois.
Denmark Vesey was a free Black man and community leader in Charleston, South Carolina, who was accused and convicted of planning a major slave revolt in 1822. Although the alleged plot was discovered before it could be realized, its potential scale stoked the fears of the antebellum planter class that led to increased restrictions on both enslaved and free African Americans.
The Baptist War, also known as the Sam Sharp Rebellion, the Christmas Rebellion, the Christmas Uprising and the Great Jamaican Slave Revolt of 1831–32, was an eleven-day rebellion that started on 25 December 1831 and involved up to 60,000 of the 300,000 slaves in the Colony of Jamaica. The uprising was led by a black Baptist deacon, Samuel Sharpe, and waged largely by his followers. The revolt, though militarily unsuccessful, played a major part in the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire.
The Confessions of Nat Turner is a 1968 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel by American writer William Styron. Presented as a first-person narrative by historical figure Nat Turner, the novel concerns Nat Turner's Rebellion in Virginia in 1831. It is a fictional retelling based on The Confessions of Nat Turner: The Leader of the Late Insurrection in Southampton, Virginia, a first-hand account of Turner's confessions published by a local lawyer, Thomas R. Gray, in 1831.
During the era of chattel slavery in the United States, the proper education of enslaved African Americans was highly discouraged, and eventually made illegal in most of the Southern states.
The history of slavery in Kentucky dates from the earliest permanent European settlements in the state, until the end of the Civil War. In 1830, enslaved African Americans represented 24 percent of Kentucky's population, a share that declined to 19.5 percent by 1860, on the eve of the Civil War. Most enslaved people were concentrated in the cities of Louisville and Lexington and in the hemp- and tobacco-producing Bluegrass Region and Jackson Purchase. Other enslaved people lived in the Ohio River counties, where they were most often used in skilled trades or as house servants. Relatively few people were held in slavery in the mountainous regions of eastern and southeastern Kentucky, where they served primarily as artisans and service workers in towns.
The 1811 German Coast uprising was a slave rebellion which occurred in the Territory of Orleans from January 8–10, 1811. It occurred on the east bank of the Mississippi River in the modern-day Louisiana parishes of St. John the Baptist, St. Charles and Jefferson. The rebellion was the largest of its kind in the history of the United States, but the rebels only killed two white men. Confrontations with U.S. military personnel and local militiamen who were sent to suppress the rebellion, combined with post-trial executions, resulted in the deaths of 95 rebels.
Invisible churches among enslaved African Americans in the United States were informal Christian groups where enslaved people listened to preachers that they chose without their slaveholder's knowledge. The Invisible churches taught a different message from white-controlled churches and did not emphasize obedience to slave masters. Some slaves could not contact invisible churches and others did not agree with an invisible church's message but many slaves were comforted by the invisible churches.
Slavery in Virginia began with the capture and enslavement of Native Americans during the early days of the English Colony of Virginia and through the late eighteenth century. They primarily worked in tobacco fields. Africans were first brought to colonial Virginia in 1619, when 20 Africans from present-day Angola arrived in Virginia aboard the ship The White Lion.
Thomas Ruffin Gray was an American attorney who represented several enslaved people during the trials in the wake of Nat Turner's Rebellion. Though he was not the attorney who represented Nat Turner, instead he interviewed him and wrote The Confessions of Nat Turner.
Anti-literacy laws in many slave states before and during the American Civil War affected slaves, freedmen, and in some cases all people of color. Some laws arose from concerns that literate slaves could forge the documents required to escape to a free state. According to William M. Banks, "Many slaves who learned to write did indeed achieve freedom by this method. The wanted posters for runaways often mentioned whether the escapee could write." Anti-literacy laws also arose from fears of slave insurrection, particularly around the time of abolitionist David Walker's 1829 publication of Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, which openly advocated rebellion, and Nat Turner's Rebellion of 1831.
William Henry Brodnax was a nineteenth-century American militia Brigadier General and American politician from Virginia.
Andrew Jackson, the seventh U.S. president, was a slave owner and slave trader who demonstrated a lifelong passion for the legal ownership and exploitation of enslaved black Americans. Unlike Thomas Jefferson and George Washington, Jackson "never questioned the morality of slavery."
Slave rebellions and resistance were means of opposing the system of chattel slavery in the United States. There were many ways that most slaves would either openly rebel or quietly resist due to the oppressive systems of slavery. According to Herbert Aptheker, "there were few phases of ante-bellum Southern life and history that were not in some way influenced by the fear of, or the actual outbreak of, militant concerted slave action." Slave rebellions in the United States were small and diffuse compared with those in other slave economies in part due to "the conditions that tipped the balance of power against southern slaves—their numerical disadvantage, their creole composition, their dispersal in relatively small units among resident whites—were precisely the same conditions that limited their communal potential." As such, "Confrontation in the Old South characteristically took the form of an individual slave's open resistance to plantation authorities,"or other individual or small-group actions, such as slaves opportunistically killing slave traders in hopes of avoiding forced migration away from friends and family.
1 2 "Nat Turner". History.com. December 2, 2009. Retrieved February 26, 2018.
1 2 Andrews, William L. (2008). "7". In Wimbush, Vincent L. (ed.). Theorizing Scriptures: New Critical Orientations to a Cultural Phenomenon. Rutgers University Press. pp.83–85. ISBN978-0813542041.
↑ Allmendinger Jr., David F. Nat Turner and the Rising in Southampton County. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014. pp. 21–22. ISBN978-1421422558
↑ Foner, Eric (2014). An American History: Give Me Liberty. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. p.336. ISBN978-0393920338.
↑ Richmond Enquirer (November 8, 1831), quoted in Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th ed. New York: International Publishers, 1983. ISBN978-0717806058 pp. 298–299. Aptheker notes that the Enquirer was "hostile to the cause Turner espoused."
↑ Greenberg, Kenneth S. Nat Turner: A Slave Rebellion in History and Memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. p. 146. ISBN978-0195177565.
1 2 3 Parramore, Thomas C. (1998). Trial Separation: Murfreesboro, North Carolina, and the Civil War. Murfreesboro, North Carolina: Murfreesboro Historical Association, Inc. p.10. LCCN00503566.
↑ Richmond Whig (September 3, 1831) in Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th ed. New York: International Publishers, 1983, p. 301. ISBN978-0717806058
↑ Richmond Enquirer (September 6, 1831) in Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th ed. New York: International Publishers, 1983, p. 301. ISBN978-0717806058
↑ New York Evening Post (September 5, 1831), Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th edition. New York: International Publishers, 1983, p. 301. ISBN978-0717806058
↑ Southern Advocate (October 15, 1831) in Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. 5th edition. New York: International Publishers, 1983., p. 201 ISBN978-0717806058.
↑ Breen, Patrick H. (2015). The Land Shall Be Deluged in Blood: A New History of the Nat Turner Revolt. New York. pp.98, 231. ISBN978-0-19-982800-5. High estimates have been widely accepted in both academic and popular sources.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
↑ Allmendinger, David F. (2014). Nat Turner and the rising in Southampton County. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN978-1-4214-1480-5. Recent studies which review various estimates for the number of enslaved and free Blacks killed without trial, giving a range of from 23 killed to over 200 killed.
↑ Rushdy, Ashraf (1999). Neo-slave Narratives: Studies in the Social Logic of a Literary Form. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 60. ISBN978-0-19-512533-7
1 2 Drewry, William Sydney (1900). The Southampton Insurrection. Washington, D.C.: The Neale Company. pp.13, 151–53. via Internet Archive
↑ French, Scot. The Rebellious Slave: Nat Turner in American Memory. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. 2004, pp. 278–79. ISBN978-0618104482
↑ Gibson, Christine (November 11, 2005). "Nat Turner, Lightning Rod". American Heritage Magazine. Archived from the original on April 6, 2009. Retrieved April 6, 2009.
↑ Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion. Workers of the Writers Program of the Work Projects Administration, compiler. New York, Oxford University Press, 1941, p. 78. via Internet Archive.
↑ Gray-White, Deborah; Bay, Mia; Martin, Waldo E. Jr. (2013). Freedom on my mind: A History of African Americans. New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013. p.225.
↑ Roth, Sarah N. (2019). "Pamphlets". The Nat Turner Project. Meredith College. Retrieved December 20, 2022.
↑ "The Confessions of Nat Turner". The Richmond Enquirer. Richmond, Virginia. November 25, 1831. Retrieved December 19, 2022– via The Nat Turner Project.
1 2 Workers of the Writers’ Program of the Work Projects Administration, ed. (1941). Virginia A Guide To The Old Dominion. Oxford University Press. p.64 – via Internet Archive.
↑ Harris, James H. (1995). Preaching Liberation. Fortress Press. p.46. ISBN978-0800628413.
↑ Garnet, Henry Highland. A Memorial Discourse. Philadelphia: Joseph M. Wilson, 1865. pp. 44–51. via Hathi Trust.
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