Native Americans in United States elections

Last updated

Proportion of Indigenous Americans in each county of the fifty states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States Census Indigenous Americans by county.png
Proportion of Indigenous Americans in each county of the fifty states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States Census

Native Americans in the United States have had a unique history in their ability to vote and participate in United States elections and politics. Native Americans have been allowed to vote in United States elections since the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924, but were historically barred in different states from doing so. [1] After a long history of fighting against voting rights restrictions, Native Americans now play an increasingly integral part in United States elections. They have been included in more recent efforts by political campaigns to increase voter turnout. Such efforts have borne more notable fruit since the 2020 U.S. presidential election, when Native American turnout was attributed to the historic flipping of the state of Arizona, which had not voted for the Democratic Party since the 1996 U.S. presidential election. [2]

Contents

Despite this increase, in general, voter turnout remains low among Native Americans, as does overall trust in American political institutions. They are usually more likely to vote in tribal elections and to trust their officials. [3]

History of Native American suffrage

Voter suppression

Picture created by Thomas Nast illustrating voter suppression towards Native Americans in the 19th century Nast, Thomas "Move on!".jpg
Picture created by Thomas Nast illustrating voter suppression towards Native Americans in the 19th century

It was not until 1924, when Native Americans were given citizenship, that they were able to vote. However, even as citizens some states still found ways to deny them the right to vote. One example is when the Arizona Supreme Court denied citizenship and suffrage to Native Americans living on reservations, arguing that they were under federal not state jurisdiction. [4] Other tactics states used included the argument that Native Americans living on reservations should not have an influence in making state and local laws since they are not subject to their laws. In New Mexico, before 1948, Natives that did not have to pay state taxes were prevented from voting. Moreover, up until 1962 New Mexico continued suppressing indigenous voting rights on the basis that Native Americans living on reservations were not residents of the state. [4] The same argument was used in Utah in 1956 to deny Indians the right to vote. The Utah Supreme Court ruled that Indians were incapable of being good citizens because of their illiteracy and separation from American society. Other states refused to recognize Indians as citizens unless they assimilated and abandoned all tribal connections. [4]

From the early history of the Dakota settlement, suffrage was largely restricted to include only free white males. After the passage of the Snyder Act, the state of South Dakota denied voting rights and the right to hold office to Native Americans up to 1940. Practices to prevent Natives from voting included denying citizenship and blocking them from polling places. Some counties in the state continued these restrictive policies until as late as 1970. A court decision from 2006 also failed to recognize Native American citizenship. [5]

Legislation

President Coolidge stands with four Osage Indians at the White House 1924 Indian Citizenship Act.jpg
President Coolidge stands with four Osage Indians at the White House

There have been many laws passed to guarantee the voting rights of Native Americans. One of the first instances of these protections can be found in the Dawes Act, passed in 1885. The majority of the provisions of this law, however, aimed to assimilate Native American people into Western culture. This act also resulted in a huge loss of native lands. [1] Many Natives were still denied citizenship until the Indian Citizenship Act was passed in 1924. Many individual states still denied suffrage to Native Americans because, they argued, they lived on federal lands, did not pay real estate tax, and participated in tribal elections, among other reasons. [6] The 1965 Voting Rights Act ensured suffrage for all Native Americans, although some Native Americans still experienced opposition at the hands of state governments from practicing their newly granted right to vote. [1] In 1975, amendments were passed to the Voting Rights Act, such as Section 203, that pushed to distribute election materials such as ballots in minority languages, including those Native American languages. This was also weakly enforced by the state of South Dakota, until recently. [5]

The issue of US citizenship among Native Americans resulted in many legal battles. In 1884, Elk v. Wilkins reached the US Supreme Court, which questioned whether or not Native Americans could be granted US citizenship while still maintaining their tribal citizenship. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of granting dual citizenship to natives. [7] Although the Dawes Act, and especially the Snyder Act, ensured citizenship for all Native Americans, states still pushed to deny Native Americans the right to vote. A 1928 Arizona state court ruling, Porter v. Hall, claimed Native Americans were not competent enough to vote. Many other states followed this ruling and denied suffrage to Native Americans. [1]

Role of women

Main article: Native Americans and women's suffrage in the United States

Zitkala-Sa, a Native American suffragist Zitkala-Sa.jpg
Zitkála-Šá, a Native American suffragist

As early as the general women's suffrage movement of the late 19th century and early 20th century, Native American women have played a role in the push for women to play a more active role in politics. As early as the 1810s, groups of Cherokee women, for instance, were seen advocating for equal rights to share with white women. [8] After the 1920s, which saw the passage of the 19th amendment (guaranteeing women's suffrage) and the Snyder Act, activism for including Native female voices continued. As early as the 1930s, Native tribes such as the Ho-Chunk were including full suffrage for their women. [9]

Today, Native women are shown to generally play a more active role in politics than their male counterparts. Surveys and polls alike show that Native women demonstrate a greater sense of civic duty. Such determination has led women to be essentially at the forefront of efforts to increase turnout among Natives. [10] Despite all of this, Native women still play a minimal role in positions of government. Much of this is attributed to a resource gap along gender lines. [11]

Voter turnout among Native Americans

Economic factors

It has been found that, largely, economic factors have an impact on voter turnout. A study showed that within Native American families' voter turnout was increased by 6% for every $3,000 increase in the family's income. It also showed that education had an impact on Natives' likelihood to vote with a 13% increase for every year of schooling. However, despite the positive increases, Native American voting turnout is still less than "non-Indians". [12]

In comparison to tribal elections

Scholars note that there is a significant difference in voter turnout between United States and tribal elections. The violent history between the United States and Native Americans has been noted as one of the factors for this inconsistency. Because of this history, Native Americans feel a greater sense of trust towards their respective tribes than to the United States. Many Native Americans believe their rights are more likely to be protected by their own tribe than by the US government. [3]

Efforts to increase turnout

Voter turnout for all minority groups, including Native Americans, is much lower than the majority Caucasian population in the United States. [13] One study showed that Native Americans were 51% less likely to vote than any other race. Other factors that affected Native American voter turnout were family income and education. [14] Voter turnout began to increase as Native Americans enjoyed more sovereignty and cultural identity. [13]

Tactics to increase voter turnout have been very diverse. One direct effort to increase voter turnout was campaigning through radio, as Native Americans are some of the most prevalent users of the radio. Once efforts were made to campaign via radio, political participation increased. [15] [16] Cumulative voting was another effort made to help minorities such as Native Americans increase turnout. In one study conducted among members of the Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux tribe in South Dakota, cumulative voting was found to have increased voter turnout among tribal members. A majority of the members enjoyed using the cumulative system. [17] Voter registration drives were also an effective method to increase non-tribal political participation among Native Americans. The Navajo were among the first to use this tactic. This resulted in significant increase in voter turnout in the 1970s. [4]

Party partisanship

National elections

Data from the earliest elections in which Native Americans could vote is scarce. The reason this is, according to political research, is because of a more recent development of political consciousness that began among Native Americans in the wake of the civil rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s. [13] Often, even today, the Native vote is grouped together in demographic studies in the "other" category. [18] [19] [20]   Data has more specifically accounted for the Native vote in more recent elections (example: 2020 election). Generally, though, what is found by political research is, at least recently, Natives have generally favored the Democratic Party. Despite a lack of serious partisanship, they are even less likely than other ethnic groups to vote for a "split ticket", a trait they share with other minority voters as well. [13] [21]

What is known is that Natives likely developed great support for the Democratic Party, as with African Americans, because of their inclusion and participation in New Deal programs. Says one Native who recalls the New Deal Era: “We had it good once he [ Roosevelt] was in charge. The New Deal was a big deal here." [6] Republican senators’ ties to historic termination policies are also suggested as a factor into this preference, though Natives did have somewhat warm relations with Republican presidents Richard M. Nixon and Ronald Reagan. [22]

What further illustrates this is, is that earlier research from 1979 and 1982 shows that Native Americans, in some areas more or less than others, were not very party rigid. Some specific tribes, such as the Navajo, have even historically preferred the Republican Party, though this has changed as well. [4] Between 1984 and 1996, support for the Democratic Party never went below 75% (an increase from an average of 66% between 1970 and 1982). In general, Native Americans in all-Native precincts are more likely to vote more Democratic than in mixed or all-white precincts. [13] More recent exit polls show that Natives had initially been more willing to break for Donald Trump in the 2016 election, which is an apparent increase from four years prior, when Mitt Romney was the Republican candidate. [23] However, the Native vote made historic leaps in going handily to Joe Biden the next election. [2] Republican and conservative politics tends to fare better with Natives in more mixed settings, namely more rural precincts, as seen in elections as recent as 2020. [24] [25]

Though a majority of Native American voters support the Democratic Party, the dominant political ideology among Natives is more complex. Exit polls and research over time illustrate that Natives tend to be political moderates and hold traditional values. [21] [26] New Mexico studies showed, for example, that Native voters there value "egalitarian, liberal care for the less fortunate", but also "self-determination and libertarianism". This specific study also says that they value "Reaganism". [25]

Also, despite a general trend of low turnout, even before the great turnout bump of 2020, political researchers had for many years seen potential in the Native vote to hold great weight. Research that dates back to 1997 suggests that Natives had potential as swing voters in what were at the time deemed fairly equal in Democratic and Republican registration, such as Montana. [14] Though today's trends make these states seem much more solidly Republican, the case of Arizona (a state once considered "solid red") in 2020 has led political research to focus once again on this phenomenon of their "swing power". [2]

State elections

In addition to not being likely to "split ticket" vote, Natives have also proven to be helpful in swinging state elections over to Democrats. Even before 2020, Native voters provided great leeway for the Democrats. Political research attributes the Native vote as a major factor in the electing Democratic senators such as James E. Murray of Montana in 1954, George McGovern of South Dakota in 1962, and Maria Cantwell of Washington in 2000 (who still holds office, as of 2021). [1]

Many states where Native reservations exist today are considered "solid Republican" states. Research attributes Natives’ inability to help at least narrow down these races is because of historic voter suppression (see above sections). [5] Another reason this happens is that, as voter turnout in national elections has already been low for them, it has been reasonable to conclude that turnout in state elections would be even lower, a trend that most all American voters exemplify. [3] Efforts by officials in states with heavier Native populations were able to greatly increase voter turnout for gubernatorial elections, especially in the 1970s, which has helped Native turnout increase in general over time. [4]

As politicians

Main articles: List of Native American politicians, List of Native Americans in United States Congress

Senator Markwayne Mullin (R-OK), Cherokee Markwayne Mullin official Senate photo.jpg
Senator Markwayne Mullin (R-OK), Cherokee
Interior Secretary Deb Haaland (D-NM), Pueblo Secretary Deb Haaland, official headshot.jpg
Interior Secretary Deb Haaland (D-NM), Pueblo

Over time, Native Americans have been able to gain more representation the more they overcome other legal barriers in voting rights. A previous lack in ability to do so can be traced back to a simple lack of the resources for Native Americans (see section on "economic factors"). [22] In recent years, though, a general trend of increase in Native American representation has been evident, particularly in the legislative branch and in local offices. [27]

In 1892, Charles Curtis (R-Kansas) was the first Native American elected to the House of Representatives; he also became the first Native American senator in 1914. This year held the first senate elections held after the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which allowed for the election of senators by popular vote. Upon becoming vice president following his election with Herbert Hoover in 1928, Curtis reached the highest elected office a Native American in the United States has ever reached, a record he still holds. No other Native Americans would be elected to Congress in either chamber until Republican Ben Reifel (Rosebud Lakota) of South Dakota, who served from 1961 to 1971; Ben Nighthorse Campbell (Northern Cheyenne) of Colorado was elected into the House of Representatives in 1986, and would become the first Native American in the Senate since Curtis when he was elected 1992 (although originally a member of the Democratic Party, Campbell left for the Republican Party in 1995).

As legal battles have been won against voter suppression, Native Americans have played more of a role in electing representatives from among their own. Among these historic changes were the local elections in McKinley County, New Mexico in 1972; Coconino County, Arizona in 1980; San Juan County, Utah in 1986; and in precincts across the Navajo reservation in 1990 (with 5 Navajos running under the slogan "it’s our turn"). [4] As for state legislatures, between the 1980s to 2018, it was reported that the number of state legislators that are Native Americans has tripled. However, 64% of those representatives only live in five states. [27]

Native American interest groups

Logo of National Indian Gaming Commission National Indian Gaming Commission logo.png
Logo of National Indian Gaming Commission

Natives have also been somewhat known to have played a role in lobbying. Native-specific interest groups have, since the 1980s, been demonstrating quite some influence in passing legislation such as gambling and gaming laws. A prominent example is the National Indian Gaming Commission, founded in 1988 after the passage of the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (or IGRA). This group, along with other contributors, have been able to make Indian gaming make up 66% of PAC contributions by gaming corporations, according to data from 2004 (an increase from just 20% in 1994). Studies also show that such issues, when publicized by these groups, have also contributed to an increase in Native turnout. What has been gathered is that, in election years where certain gaming laws are on the ballot, Natives will be more likely to turn out and vote those years. [22]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</span> 1920 amendment mandating womens suffrage

The Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the United States and its states from denying the right to vote to citizens of the United States on the basis of sex, in effect recognizing the right of women to vote. The amendment was the culmination of a decades-long movement for women's suffrage in the United States, at both the state and national levels, and was part of the worldwide movement towards women's suffrage and part of the wider women's rights movement. The first women's suffrage amendment was introduced in Congress in 1878. However, a suffrage amendment did not pass the House of Representatives until May 21, 1919, which was quickly followed by the Senate, on June 4, 1919. It was then submitted to the states for ratification, achieving the requisite 36 ratifications to secure adoption, and thereby go into effect, on August 18, 1920. The Nineteenth Amendment's adoption was certified on August 26, 1920.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Politics of the United States</span> On the political system of the United States of America

In the United States, politics functions within a framework of a constitutional federal republic and presidential system, with three distinct branches that share powers: the U.S. Congress which forms the legislative branch, a bicameral legislative body comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate; the executive branch, which is headed by the president of the United States, who serves as the country's head of state and government; and the judicial branch, composed of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts, and which exercises judicial power.

Universal suffrage or Universal franchise ensures the right to vote for as many people who are bound by a government's laws as possible, as supported by the "one person, one vote" principle. For many, the term universal suffrage assumes the exclusion of youth and non-citizens, while some insist that much more inclusion is needed before suffrage can be called universal. Democratic theorists, especially those hoping to achieve more universal suffrage, support presumptive inclusion, where the legal system would protect the voting rights of all subjects unless the government can clearly prove that disenfranchisement is necessary. Universal full suffrage includes both the right to vote, also called active suffrage, and right to be elected, also called passive suffrage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Voter turnout</span> Percentage of a countrys eligible voters who actually vote within elections

In political science, voter turnout is the participation rate of a given election. This is typically either the percentage of registered voters, eligible voters, or all voting-age people. According to Stanford University political scientists Adam Bonica and Michael McFaul, there is a consensus among political scientists that "democracies perform better when more people vote."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Voting rights in the United States</span> Suffrage in American elections

Voting rights, specifically enfranchisement and disenfranchisement of different groups, has been a moral and political issue throughout United States history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elective rights</span>

Two central issues for democracies are the right to candidate, and suffrage or the franchise—that is, the decision as to who is entitled to vote. For example, Athenian democracy limited the vote to male citizens, while slaves, foreigners, and women of any status were excluded. Requirements and exclusions such as these, along with racial prohibitions, have been common in democracies. The definition of legal personhood has been historically tied up with these questions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Youth vote in the United States</span>

The youth vote in the United States is the cohort of 18–24 year-olds as a voting demographic, though some scholars define youth voting as voters under 30. Many policy areas specifically affect the youth of the United States, such as education issues and the juvenile justice system; however, young people also care about issues that affect the population as a whole, such as national debt and war.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in the United States</span>

Women's suffrage, or the right to vote, was established in the United States over the course of more than half a century, first in various states and localities, sometimes on a limited basis, and then nationally in 1920 with the ratification of the 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Voter registration in the United States</span> Requirement for most elections in the United States of America

Voter registration in the United States is required for voting in federal, state and local elections. The only exception is North Dakota, although cities in North Dakota may register voters for city elections. Voter registration takes place at the county level in many states and at the municipal level in several states. Most states set cutoff dates for voter registration and to update details, ranging from 2 to 4 weeks before an election; while a third of states have Election Day or "same-day" voter registration which enables eligible citizens to register or update their registration when they vote before or on election day.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Voter turnout in United States presidential elections</span> Aspect of election history

The historical trends in voter turnout in the United States presidential elections have been determined by the gradual expansion of voting rights from the initial restriction to white male property owners aged 21 or older in the early years of the country's independence to all citizens aged 18 or older in the mid-20th century. Voter turnout in United States presidential elections has historically been higher than the turnout for midterm elections.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2018 United States elections</span>

The 2018 United States elections were held on Tuesday, November 6, 2018. These midterm elections occurred during Incumbent Republican President Donald Trump's term. Although the Republican Party increased its majority in the Senate, unified Republican control of Congress and the White House was brought to an end when the Democratic Party won control of the House of Representatives in what was widely characterized as a "blue wave" election.

This timeline highlights milestones in women's suffrage in the United States, particularly the right of women to vote in elections at federal and state levels.

Voter suppression in the United States consists of various legal and illegal efforts to prevent eligible citizens from exercising their right to vote. Such voter suppression efforts vary by state, local government, precinct, and election. Voter suppression has historically been used for racial, economic, gender, age and disability discrimination. After the American Civil War, all African-American men were granted voting rights, but poll taxes or language tests were used to limit and suppress the ability to register or cast a ballot. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 improved voting access significantly. Since the beginning of voter suppression efforts, proponents of these laws have cited concerns over electoral integrity as a justification for various restrictions and requirements, while opponents argue that these constitute bad faith given the lack of voter fraud evidence in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's political participation in India</span>

The term 'political participation' has a very wide meaning. It is not only related to 'Right to Vote', but simultaneously relates to participation in: decision-making process, political activism, political consciousness, etc. Women in India participate in voting, run for public offices and political parties at lower levels more than men. Political activism and voting are the strongest areas of women's political participation. To combat gender inequality in politics, the Indian Government has instituted reservations for seats in local governments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elections in North Dakota</span> Overview of the procedure of elections in the U.S. state of North Dakota

Statewide elections in the U.S. state of North Dakota take place every two years. Most executive offices and all legislators are elected to four-year terms, with half the terms expiring on U.S. Presidential election years, and the other half expiring on mid-term election years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 South Dakota Democratic presidential primary</span>

The 2016 South Dakota Democratic presidential primary was held on June 7 in the U.S. state of South Dakota as one of the Democratic Party's primaries ahead of the 2016 presidential election.

This is a timeline of voting rights in the United States, documenting when various groups in the country gained the right to vote or were disenfranchised.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in Wyoming</span> Womens suffrage in a U.S. state

Wyoming was the first place in the world to incorporate women's suffrage, although other jurisdictions had already given limited suffrage to women who met various property qualifications. A U.S. territory in 1869, Wyoming's first territorial legislature voted to give women the right to vote and to hold public office. A legislature made entirely of men passed the woman's suffrage bill in 1869 entitled "An Act to Grant to the Women of Wyoming Territory the Right of Suffrage, and to Hold Office.” The territory retained its woman suffrage law even when that law could have jeopardized the Wyoming Territory's application for statehood. In 1890, Wyoming became the first U.S. state allowing its woman citizens to vote.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Native Americans and women's suffrage in the United States</span>

Native American women influenced early women's suffrage activists in the United States. The Iroquois nations, which had an egalitarian society, were visited by early feminists and suffragists, such as Lydia Maria Child, Matilda Joslyn Gage, Lucretia Mott, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. These women discussed how Native American women had authority in their own cultures at various feminist conventions and also in the news. Native American women became a symbol for some suffrage activists. However, other white suffragists actively excluded Native American people from the movement. When the Nineteenth Amendment was passed in 1920, suffragist Zitkala-Sa, commented that Native Americans still had more work to do in order to vote. It was not until 1924 that many Native Americans could vote under the Indian Citizenship Act. In many states, there were additional barriers to Native American voting rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's suffrage in South Dakota</span>

Women's suffrage started in South Dakota when it was part of Dakota Territory. Prior to 1889, it had a shared history of women's suffrage with North Dakota. While South Dakota was part of the territory, women earned the right to vote on school related issues. They retained this right after it became a separate state. The state constitution specified that there would be a women's suffrage amendment referendum in 1890. Despite a large campaign that included Susan B. Anthony and a state suffrage group, the South Dakota Equal Suffrage Association (SDESA), the referendum failed. The state legislature passed additional suffrage referendums over the years, but each was voted down until 1918. South Dakota was an early ratifier of the Nineteenth Amendment, which was approved during a special midnight legislative session on December 4, 1919.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Riggs, Christopher K (2020). Rising from the Ashes: Survival, Sovereignty, and Native America. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 169–220.
  2. 1 2 3 Fonseca, Felicia (2020). "Native American votes helped secure Biden's win in Arizona". AP News.
  3. 1 2 3 Schroedel, Jean; Berg, Aaron; Dietrich, Joseph; Rodriguez, Javier M. (2020). "Political Trust and Native American Electoral Participation: An Analysis of Survey Data from Nevada and South Dakota". Social Science Quarterly. 101 (5): 1885–1904. doi:10.1111/ssqu.12840. S2CID   225568501.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Berman, David R; Salant, Tanis J. (1998). "Minority representation, resistance, and public policy: The Navajos and the counties". Publius. 28 (4): 83–104. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a030002.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. 1 2 3 Schroedel, Jean; Aslanian, Artour (2015). "Native American Vote Suppression: The Case of South Dakota". Race, Gender & Class. 22 (1–2): 308–323. JSTOR   26505340 – via JSTOR.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. 1 2 Treuer, David J. (2019). The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee. New York: Riverhead Books. p. 244.
  7. ↑ Clow, Richmond L. (2019). "Crossing the divide from Citizen to Voter Tribal Suffrage in Montana, 1880–2016". Montana: The Magazine of Western History. 69: 35–54.
  8. ↑ Carpenter, Daniel; Popp, Zachary; Resch, Tobias; Schneer, Benjamin; Topich, Nicole. "Suffrage Petitioning as Formative Practice: American Women Presage and Prepare for the Vote, 1840–1940". Studies in American Political Development. 32. Iss. 1: 24–48. ProQuest   2037394274.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ↑ Arndt, Grant (July 2015). "Voices and Votes in the Fields of Settler Society: American Indian Media and Electoral Politics in 1930s Wisconsin". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 57 (3): 780–805. doi:10.1017/S0010417515000286. JSTOR   43908371. S2CID   152091630 – via JSTOR.
  10. ↑ Prindeville, Diane-Michele (2004). "Feminist Nations? A Study of Native American Women in Southwestern Tribal Politics". Political Research Quarterly. 57 (1): 101–112. doi:10.1177/106591290405700108. S2CID   153333644. ProQuest   215321991.
  11. ↑ Miller, Bruce, G. (1994). "Women and Tribal Politics: Is There a Gender Gap in Indian Elections?". American Indian Quarterly. 18 (1): 25–41. doi:10.2307/1185727. JSTOR   1185727 – via JSTOR.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ↑ Robinson, Jennifer L. (2010). Empowerment of American Indians and the effect on political participation (PhD dissertation). University of Utah. ProQuest   822626824.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Doherty, Steven J. (1999). "The Political Behavior of Native Americans in the Upper Midwest". Dissertation Abstracts International. 60 (2): 531 – via America: History & Life (EBSCO).
  14. 1 2 Peterson, Geoff (1997). "Native American Turnout in the 1990 and 1992 Elections". American Indian Quarterly. 21 (2): 321–331. doi:10.2307/1185650. JSTOR   1185650.
  15. ↑ "Radio Public Service Announcements and Voter Participation Among Native Americans in the United States".
  16. ↑ de Rooij, Eline A.; Green, Donald P. (June 2017). "Radio Public Service Announcements and Voter Participation Among Native Americans: Evidence from Two Field Experiments". Political Behavior. 39 (2): 327–346. doi:10.1007/s11109-016-9358-4. S2CID   156414553.
  17. ↑ Engstrom, Richard L; Barrilleaux, Charles J. (1991). "Native Americans and Cumulative Voting: The Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux". Social Science Quarterly. 72 (2): 388–393. JSTOR   42864266.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ↑ Uhlaner, Carole Jean; Scola, Becki (2016). "Collective Representation as a Mobilizer: Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Their Intersections at the State Level". State Politics & Policy Quarterly. 16 (2): 227–263. doi:10.1177/1532440015603576. S2CID   147970313.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ↑ "President Exit Polls". The New York Times. 2013.
  20. ↑ "National Exit Poll". CNN. 2013.
  21. 1 2 Robinson, Jennifer L. (2010). Empowerment of American Indians and the effect on political participation (Thesis). The University of Utah, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing: University of Utah.
  22. 1 2 3 Boehmke, Frederick J; Witmer, Richard (2012). "Indian Nations as Interest Groups: Tribal Motivations for Contributions to U.S. Senators". Political Research Quarterly. 65 (1): 179–191. doi:10.1177/1065912910388182. JSTOR   23209568. S2CID   2739309.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ↑ Strickland, Produced By Jon Huang, Samuel Jacoby, Michael; Lai, K. Rebecca (2017). "Election 2016: Exit Polls". The New York Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ↑ Fordham, Evie (2020). "Trump investment in North Carolina's Native American Lumbee Tribe pays off". Fox News.
  25. 1 2 Gastil, John; Jenkins-Smith, Hank; St. Clair, Gilbert K (2002). "Beyond Green Chiles and Coyotes: The Changing Shape of New Mexico's Political-Cultural Regions from 1967 to 1997". New Mexico Historical Review. 77 (2): 173–195. SSRN   2747794.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ↑ Russell, Scott C.; Henderson, Eric (1999). "The 1994 Navajo Presidential Election: Analysis of the Election and Results of an Exit Poll". American Indian Quarterly. 23 (2): 23–37. doi:10.2307/1185965. JSTOR   1185965.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. 1 2 Reingold, Beth (2019). "Gender, Race/Ethnicity, and Representation in State Legislatures". PS, Political Science & Politics. 52 (3): 426–429. doi: 10.1017/S1049096519000052 .
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.