Phoenician votive inscriptions or Punic votive inscriptions are votive inscriptions in the Phoenician and Punic religion, dedicated to a certain god or gods, mostly on stelae. The inscriptions have a standard formula, including the name of the god (or gods), the statement of the vow, the name of the vower and a closing statement. Most of the inscriptions were found in Carthage, and dedicated to Tinnit, Baʿal Ḥammon or both. [1]
Most of the inscriptions are written in the exact same formula. This formula opens with the dedication to the god or gods (for example: LRBT LTNT PN BʿL WLʾDN LBʿL ḤMN = "To the lady - to Tinnit the face of Baal, and to the lord - to Baal Hammon"). [2] After the dedication, the statement of the vow (ʾŠ NDR = "which devoted", "which vowed") and the name (and his/her ancestry, and sometimes the employment as well) appears (for example: [3] ʾŠ NDR MHRBʿL HSPR BN BDʿŠTRT BN MLKYTN BN ʾDRBʿL = "which Meherbaal the writer son of Bodastart son of Milkyathon son of Addirbaal devoted"). [2] In in quite a few cases the inscriptions end with a closing statement to the god/gods (K ŠMʿ QLʾ BRKʾ or K ŠMʿ QLʾ YBRKʾ = "for he/she/they (the go/gods) heard his/her (the vower) voice, may he/she/they bless him/her", or simply K ŠMʿ QLʾ BRKʾ = "for he/she/they heard his/her voice", and other close variations), but it is frequently absent. [2]
Most of the inscriptions include a general dedication (the ʾŠ NDR part), but a minority of them include a certain specific vowed object(s): obelisks and masks, [4] copper altar, [5] wooden cart/carts/female calf, [6] et cetera. Some of the inscriptions describe the stele of the vowed object as a gift, mostly in the version ʾŠ YTN ("which gave", as opposed to ʾŠ NDR) or with MTNT ("gift"), [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] and some mix both the gift and the vow versions. [14] Some inscriptions are made in an extremely short formula, including only the vower's name and the word NDR (as a noun – "the vow of") [15] or MTNT ("the gift of"). [16] The closing statement rarely appears as "for he/she/they heard the voice of his words". [17] There are also some exceptions in the order of the parts of the standard formula. [18] A few inscriptions worn a potential thief that Tinnit or Baal Hammon, to whom the stelae were dedicated, will punish him. [19]
An inscription written in a standard formula: [20]
| [L]RBT LTNT PN BʿL WLʾD[N] | [To] the lady, to Tinnit-face-of-Baal, and to the lor[d,] |
| LBʿL ḤMN ʾŠ NDR MHRBʿL | to Baal Hammon, thus vowed Meherbaal |
| HSPR BN BDʿŠTRT BN MLK[Y] | the writer, son of Bodastart, son of Milk[ya]- |
| TN BN ʾDRBʿL K ŠMʿ QLʾ BRKʾ | -ton, for they heard his voice. May they bless him! |
A Phoenician votive inscription written in Greek transliteration: [21]
| ΛΑΔΟΥΝ ΛΥΒΑΛ ΑΜΟΥΝ ΟΥ | To the lord, to Baal Hammon, and |
| ΛΥΡΥΒΑΘΩΝ ΘΙΝΙΘ ΦΑΝΕ ΒΑΛ | to our lady, to Tinnit-face-of-Baal, |
| ΥΣ ΝΑΔΩΡ ΣΩΣΙΠΑΤΙΟΣ ΒΥΝ | thus vowed Sosipatios, son of |
| ΖΟΠΥΡΟΣ ΣΑΜΩ ΚΟΥΛΩ ΒΑ | Zopyros, (for) they heard his voice. May they bl- |
| ΡΑΧΩ | |
A second inscription, according to which the stele was erected as a gift, and not as a result of a vow, reads: [22]
| LʾDN LBʿL ḤMN WRBTN TNT | To the lord, to Baal Hammon, and our Lady, Tinnit- |
| PʿN [23] BʿL MTNT ʾŠ ṬNʾ | -face-of-Baal, a gift which erected |
| YḤWʾLN BN ʿBDʾŠMN | Yehawalon, son of Abdeshmun |
| K ŠMʿ QLʾ BRKʾ | for they heard his voice. May they bless him! |
More than 3,000 votive inscriptions were found In Carthage itself. [1] Outside Carthage, Phoenician votive inscription were also found in Hadrumetum (Hadrumetum Punic inscriptions), Cirta (Cirta steles), Malta (Cippi of Melqart), San Nicolò Gerrei (Pauli Gerrei trilingual inscription), Sulci, [24] Karaly, [25] in Phoenicia proper, and in Hammon. [26] Inscriptions in similar formulas were found in Sidon, [27] near Tyre, [28] in Athens, [29] Rhodes, [30] Egypt, [31] Kition [32] and Idalion, [33] as well as unstandard versions in Carthage. [34] Outside Carthage, the vows to gods other than Tinnit and Baal Hammon.
Based on an inscription bearing the standard formula without the name of the vower, [35] as well as a Phoenician standard votive inscription with the name of the vower in Greek alphabet, [36] it is assumed that the stelae with the standard formula were manufactured in large quantities, and only when someone was to by a stele as a result of a vow he vowed, their name was added. [37]
The stelae themselves were mostly artistic and stylized, and various decorations and religious symbols are engraved on them, often related to the content of the inscriptions. The most common symbols are Sign of Tinnit, a crescent with a disc, a hand or two spread up, and Caduceus. [38] The first sign, called "Sign of Tinnit", symbolizes according to most researchers the goddess Tinnit; her common epithet, PN BʿL appears as ΦΑΝΗΒΑΛΟΣ on a coin from Ashkelon near the symbol of Tinnit. [39] The second symbol, a crescent with a disc, is the symbol of Baʿal Ḥammon; it appears on stelae dedicated to both Tinnit and Baal Hammon or only to Baal Hammon, but does not appear on stelae dedicated only to Tinnit. [40] Moreover, the symbol appears on stelae from Samʼal, on which Baal Hammon is mentioned (like Kilamuwa stele). [41] The Caduceus might symbolize both gods in some sort of a joint cult, but it exact meaning remains unknown. [42]
The epithet PN BʿL ("the face of Baal") is reflected on Punic masks of faces from Carthage, featuring the symbol of Baal Hammon on them, literally the "face of Baal" – PN BʿL. [43] Some of the characteristics of this cult are tied to the Canaanite cult in Hazor, where (in its Orthostat temple) a stele, with a crescent with a disc and two hand spread ur towards them, was found. [44] In the courtyard of the temple's workshop, a clay mask with no beard or mustache was found, similar to the Punic masks. [45]
Lilybaeum stele, which was found near Motya – a Punic governmental centre in Sicily, bears a votive inscription, as well as symbols of Tinnit and Baal Hammon, Caduceus, an incense burner and a Priest spreads his right hand up, as well as a depiction of a line of stelae on a stage, similar to the stelae found in Hazor. [46]
The Phoenician alphabet is an alphabet known in modern times from the Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions found across the Mediterranean region. The name comes from the Phoenician civilization.
Baal Hammon, properly Baʿal Ḥammon or Baʿal Ḥamon, meaning "Lord Hammon", was the chief god of Carthage. He was a weather god considered responsible for the fertility of vegetation and esteemed as King of the Gods. He was depicted as a bearded older man with curling ram's horns. Baʿal Ḥammon's female cult partner was Tanit.
In the Hebrew Bible, Tophet or Topheth is a location in Jerusalem in the Valley of Hinnom (Gehenna), where worshipers engaged in a ritual involving "passing a child through the fire", most likely child sacrifice. Traditionally, the sacrifices have been ascribed to a god named Moloch. The Bible condemns and forbids these sacrifices, and the tophet is eventually destroyed by king Josiah, although mentions by the prophets Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah suggest that the practices associated with the tophet may have persisted.
Tanit was a Carthaginian goddess. She was the chief deity of Carthage alongside her consort Baal-Hamon.
The Punic religion, Carthaginian religion, or Western Phoenician religion in the western Mediterranean was a direct continuation of the Phoenician variety of the polytheistic ancient Canaanite religion. However, significant local differences developed over the centuries following the foundation of Carthage and other Punic communities elsewhere in North Africa, southern Spain, Sardinia, western Sicily, and Malta from the ninth century BC onward. After the conquest of these regions by the Roman Republic in the third and second centuries BC, Punic religious practices continued, surviving until the fourth century AD in some cases. As with most cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, Punic religion suffused their society and there was no stark distinction between religious and secular spheres. Sources on Punic religion are poor. There are no surviving literary sources and Punic religion is primarily reconstructed from inscriptions and archaeological evidence. An important sacred space in Punic religion appears to have been the large open air sanctuaries known as tophets in modern scholarship, in which urns containing the cremated bones of infants and animals were buried. There is a long-running scholarly debate about whether child sacrifice occurred at these locations, as suggested by Greco-Roman and biblical sources.
Carthage National Museum is a national museum in Byrsa, Tunisia. Along with the Bardo National Museum, it is one of the two main local archaeological museums in the region. The edifice sits atop Byrsa Hill, in the heart of the city of Carthage. Founded in 1875, it houses many archaeological items from the Punic era and other periods.
Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften, or KAI, is the standard source for the original text of Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions not contained in the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament.
The sign of Tanit or sign of Tinnit is an anthropomorph symbol of the Punic goddess Tanit, present on many archaeological remains of the Carthaginian civilization.
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The Lilybaeum stele is a notable Phoenician gravestone stele found in Sicily and first published in 1882.
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