Phoneutria nigriventer

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Phoneutria nigriventer
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Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae
Infraorder: Araneomorphae
Family: Ctenidae
Genus: Phoneutria
Species:
P. nigriventer
Binomial name
Phoneutria nigriventer
(Keyserling, 1891) [1]

Phoneutria nigriventer is a species of medically-significant spider in the family Ctenidae, found in the Southern Cone of South America (Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Argentina). [1] Along with other members of the genus, they are often referred to as Brazilian wandering spiders. [2]

Contents

Its bite can cause severe symptoms, including increased pulse, blood pressure, and respiratory rate; extraordinary pain; penile erection that lasts for several hours; and, in several documented cases, death. [3]

Description and behavior

Phoneutria nigriventer is a large spider. Its maximum body length is around 5 cm and its legs can span 15 cm in larger individuals. Its body is covered in thick brown hair. [4] They are nocturnal, and actively hunt at night, killing by ambush rather than using a web; during the day, they are found hidden under logs or crevices. When threatened, it raises its first two pairs of legs as a warning. [4] [5] It also occurs in banana trees, foliage, and urban regions, mainly inside residences. [6]

Reproduction

As with most spider species, the female is larger than the male. The mating ritual takes place with the male dancing to get the female's attention, with the males even fighting each other. After mating, females may attack males. The female can store the sperm in a chamber separate from the eggs, until she is ready for fertilization. They may lay about 1,000 eggs, which are stored in a silk sac. [4] One study claims that females with egg sacs are slightly more toxic than females without egg sacs. [7]

Toxicity and prey

The bite of P. nigriventer in humans, can cause several symptoms such as priapism, tachycardia, arrhythmias, cardiogenic shock, acute pulmonary edema and convulsions. [8] P. nigriventer can choose to deliver a dry bite (without injecting venom) or a minimal dose. [9]

The venom of P. nigriventer has been reported to contain at least six neurotoxic peptides globally known as PhTx3 and individually identified as Tx3-1 to Tx3-6. [10] Tx3-3 has also been named ω-Phoneutria nigriventer toxin ω-PnTx3-3 [11] and Tx3-4, phonetoxin IIA or ω-Ptx-IIA. [12] These toxins act as broad-spectrum calcium channel blockers that inhibit glutamate release, calcium uptake and also glutamate uptake in neural synapses. At deadly concentrations, these neurotoxins cause loss of muscle control and breathing problems, resulting in paralysis and eventual asphyxiation. In addition, the venom causes intense pain and inflammation following a bite, due to an excitatory effect the venom has on the serotonin 5-HT4 receptor of sensory nerves. This sensory nerve stimulation causes a cascading release of neuropeptides such as substance P, which triggers inflammation and pain. [13] Studies on the effects of the venom in dogs have shown low lethal doses to be around 0.2 mg/kg (SC). [14] The median lethal dose for females is 0.63 μg / kg (95% confidence interval [0.54-0.71], for females with egg sacs the LD50 is 0.61 μg / kg [0.56-0.73]. For males the LD50 is 1.57 μg / kg. [15] which many sources consider make it the most venomous spider in the world. [16] Differences between the venom of male and female Phoneutria nigriventer have been reported, with females producing a greater quantity of venom. [17] PhTx-2 is considered the most toxic group, which is also potent for primates. [18] Humans can be ten times more sensitive to the P. nigriventer venom compared to mice. Primates, such as monkeys and humans, are said to react particularly strongly to the venom components. [19]

Aside from causing intense pain, the venom of the spider can also cause priapism in humans. Erections resulting from the bite are uncomfortable, can last for many hours and can lead to impotence. A component of the venom, (Tx2-6), is being studied for use in erectile dysfunction treatments. [20] [3]

The Brazilian wandering spider's prey also includes crickets, katydids, mantids, as well as larger animals, including tree frogs, lizards and bats. [21]

The average venom yield is 1.25 mg, [22] and 0.4 mg in the winter. [23]

Case reports

A 23-year-old market worker was bitten on his hand in São Paulo, Brazil, while moving a bunch of bananas. The specimen measured 3.5 cm long and 6 cm with its legs. It was reported that the bite was extremely painful, accompanied by sweating and hairs standing on end. The victim additionally reported pain radiating to his chest, increased heart rate, dizziness, nausea, coldness, drooling, vomiting, and an immediate erection. He was treated with anesthetics, tetanus prophylaxis and antivenom, recovering 36 hours after the bite. [24]

Another case occurred with a 52-year-old man, bitten by an adult female. Immediately after the bite, he experienced severe local pain, blurred vision, profuse sweating, and vomiting. One to two hours after the bite he presented agitation and high blood pressure. Four hours after the bite, his heart rate reached 150 beats / min, and he also experienced mild tachypnea, cold extremities, profuse sweating, generalized tremors, and priapism. He was treated with anesthetics, antivenom and fluid replacement. [25]

In a period from 1925 to 1945 there were recorded 415 bites by this species, 400 of which required antivenom. [26]

Related Research Articles

<i>Phoneutria</i> Genus of spiders

Phoneutria is a genus of spiders in the family Ctenidae. They are mainly found in northern South America, with one species in Central America. Members of the genus are commonly referred to as Brazilian wandering spiders. Other English names include armed spiders and banana spiders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australian funnel-web spider</span> Family of mygalomorph spiders

Atracidae is a family of mygalomorph spiders, commonly known as Australian funnel-web spiders or atracids. It has been included as a subfamily of the Hexathelidae, but is now recognised as a separate family. All members of the family are native to Australia. Atracidae consists of three genera: Atrax, Hadronyche, and Illawarra, comprising 35 species. Some members of the family produce venom that is dangerous to humans, and bites by spiders of six of the species have caused severe injuries to victims. The bites of the Sydney funnel-web spider and northern tree-dwelling funnel-web spider are potentially deadly, but no fatalities have occurred since the introduction of modern first-aid techniques and antivenom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Redback spider</span> Species of spider

The redback spider, also known as the Australian black widow, is a species of highly venomous spider believed to originate in Australia but now, Southeast Asia and New Zealand, with colonies elsewhere outside Australia. It is a member of the cosmopolitan genus Latrodectus, the widow spiders. The adult female is easily recognised by her spherical black body with a prominent red stripe on the upper side of her abdomen and an hourglass-shaped red/orange streak on the underside. Females usually have a body length of about 10 millimetres (0.4 in), while the male is much smaller, being only 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) long.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wandering spider</span> Family of spiders

Wandering spiders (Ctenidae) are a family of spiders that includes the Brazilian wandering spiders. These spiders have a distinctive longitudinal groove on the top-rear of their oval carapace similar to those of the Amaurobiidae. They are highly defensive and venomous nocturnal hunters. Wandering spiders are known to hunt large prey, for example hylid species Dendropsophus branneri. Despite their notoriety for being dangerous, only a few members of Phoneutria have venom known to be hazardous to humans, but the venoms of this family are poorly known, so all larger ctenids should be treated with caution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spider bite</span> Bite caused by a spider

A spider bite, also known as arachnidism, is an injury resulting from the bite of a spider. The effects of most bites are not serious. Most bites result in mild symptoms around the area of the bite. Rarely they may produce a necrotic skin wound or severe pain.

Phoneutria reidyi is a species of venomous spiders in the family Ctenidae, found in South America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Delta atracotoxin</span> Polypeptide found in the venom of the Sydney funnel-web spider

Delta atracotoxin is a low-molecular-weight neurotoxic polypeptide found in the venom of the Sydney funnel-web spider.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Latrodectism</span> Illness from a Latrodectus spider bite

Latrodectism is the illness caused by the bite of Latrodectus spiders. Pain, muscle rigidity, vomiting, and sweating are the symptoms of latrodectism.

Tx2-6 is a toxin found in the venom of the Brazilian wandering spider, Phoneutria nigriventer(Keyserling). It is a peptide of 48 residues, molecular weight 5291.3. This peptide is cleaved from a longer precursor with a signal peptide and a glutamine-rich propeptide. It can cause priapism. Tests on rats indicate that the toxin causes nitric oxide release, and its effect on erection is blocked by the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME. However, it fully restored erectile function in rats developing hypertension due to injection of deoxycorticosterone acetate. A study is underway at the Medical College of Georgia looking at possible uses for the chemical in erectile dysfunction medication. Scientists and Gregory Ochs are collaborating on this study.

Phoneutria keyserlingi is a species of spiders in the family Ctenidae, found in Brazil.

Phoneutria nigriventer toxin-3 is more commonly referred to as PhTx3.

<i>Tityus serrulatus</i> Species of scorpion

Tityus serrulatus, the Brazilian yellow scorpion, is a species of scorpion of the family Buthidae. It is native to Brazil, and its venom is extremely toxic. It is the most dangerous scorpion in South America and is responsible for the most fatal cases.

<i>Missulena bradleyi</i> Species of spider from Australia known as the eastern mouse spider

Missulena bradleyi, also known as the eastern mouse spider, is a species of spider belonging to the family Actinopodidae. The spider is endemic to the eastern coast of Australia.

The pathophysiology of a spider bite is due to the effect of its venom. A spider envenomation occurs whenever a spider injects venom into the skin. Not all spider bites inject venom – a dry bite, and the amount of venom injected can vary based on the type of spider and the circumstances of the encounter. The mechanical injury from a spider bite is not a serious concern for humans. Some spider bites do leave a large enough wound that infection may be a concern. However, it is generally the toxicity of spider venom that poses the most risk to human beings; several spiders are known to have venom that can cause injury to humans in the amounts that a spider will typically inject when biting.

<i>Ctenus</i> Genus of spiders

Ctenus is a genus of wandering spiders first described by Charles Athanase Walckenaer in 1805. It is widely distributed, from South America through Africa to East Asia. Little is known about the toxic potential of the genus Ctenus; however, Ctenus medius has been shown to share some toxic properties with Phoneutria nigriventer, such as proteolytic, hyaluronidase and phospholipase activities, in addition to producing hyperalgesia and edema. The venom of C. medius also interferes with the complement system in concentrations in which the venom of P. nigriventer is inactive, indicating that some species in the genus may have a medically significant venom. The venom of C. medius interferes with the complement component 3 (C3) of the complement system; it affects the central factor of the cascades of the complement, and interferes with the lytic activity of this system, which causes stronger activation and consumption of the complement components. Unlike C. medius, the venom of P. nigriventer does not interfere with lytic activity.

<i>Loxosceles intermedia</i> Species of spider

Loxosceles intermedia, the Brazilian brown recluse spider, is a highly venomous spider species in the family Sicariidae native to Brazil and Argentina.

U7-ctenitoxin-Pn1a (or U7-CNTX-Pn1a for short) is a neurotoxin that blocks TRPV1 channels, and can exhibit analgestic effects. It is naturally found in the venom of Phoneutria nigriventer.

Phα1β is a peptide toxin that blocks various types of voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) and is a specific receptor antagonist of the TRPA1 cation channel. The peptide is derived from the venom of the armed spider Phoneutria nigriventer and possesses wide-ranging analgesic and anti-nociceptive effects in animal models.

References

  1. 1 2 "Taxon details Phoneutria nigriventer (Keyserling, 1891)", World Spider Catalog, Natural History Museum Bern, retrieved 2017-04-27
  2. ↑ "Wandering spider". Encyclopædia Britannica online. 2010-09-30.
  3. 1 2 Natural Viagra: Spider bite causes prolonged erection. Live Science, April 30, 2007. Accessed July 9, 2019.
  4. 1 2 3 Szalay, Jessie. "Brazilian Wandering Spiders: Bites & Other Facts". Live Science. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
  5. ↑ Bucaretchi, Fábio; Bertani, Rogério; De Capitani, Eduardo Mello; Hyslop, Stephen (2018), Vogel, Carl-Wilhelm; Seifert, Steven A.; Tambourgi, Denise V. (eds.), "Envenomation by Wandering Spiders (Genus Phoneutria)", Clinical Toxinology in Australia, Europe, and Americas, Toxinology, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 101–154, doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7438-3_63, ISBN   978-94-017-7438-3 , retrieved 2020-09-21
  6. ↑ "Phoneutria nigriventer - Disciplina - Biologia". www.biologia.seed.pr.gov.br. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  7. ↑ "Toxicity : Wandering Spiders Amazon". www.wandering-spiders.net. Retrieved 2020-09-21.
  8. ↑ Sueur, Le; Paula, Luciana de (1998). "Estudo imunohistoquimico, farmacologico e ultraestrutural da ação do veneno da aranha Phoneutria nigriventer sobre a barreira hematoencefalica de ratos".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  9. ↑ Bucaretchi, Fábio; Deus Reinaldo, Cláudia Regina de; Hyslop, Stephen; Madureira, Paulo Roberto; De Capitani, Eduardo Mello; Vieira, Ronan José (February 2000). "A clinico-epidemiological study of bites by spiders of the genus Phoneutria". Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo. 42 (1): 17–21. doi: 10.1590/S0036-46652000000100003 . ISSN   0036-4665. PMID   10742722.
  10. ↑ do Nascimento Cordeiro, Marta; Gomes de Figueiredo, Suely; do Carmo Valentim, Ana; Ribeiro Diniz, Carlos; von Eickstedt, Vera Regina D.; Gilroy, John & Richardson, Michael (1993). "Purification and amino acid sequences of six Tx3 type neurotoxins from the venom of the Brazilian 'armed' spider Phoneutria Nigriventer (Keys.)". Toxicon. 31 (1): 35–42. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(93)90354-l. PMID   8446961.
  11. ↑ Leão RM, Cruz JS, Diniz CR, Cordeiro MN, Beirão PS (2000). "Inhibition of neuronal high-voltage activated calcium channels by the ω-Phoneutria nigriventer Tx3-3 peptide toxin". Neuropharmacology. 39 (10): 1756–1767. doi:10.1016/s0028-3908(99)00267-1. PMID   10884557. S2CID   1261892.
  12. ↑ Cassola, AC; Jaffe, H; Fales, HM; Afeche, SC; Magnoli, F; Cipolla-Neto, J. (1998). "ω-Phonetoxin-IIA: a calcium channel blocker from the spider Phoneutria nigriventer". Pflügers Archiv: European Journal of Physiology. 436 (4): 545–552. doi:10.1007/s004240050670. PMID   9683727. S2CID   12064513.
  13. ↑ "Phoneutria nigriventer spider venom activates 5-HT4 receptors in rat-isolated vagus nerve". Nature.com. Retrieved 2012-10-16.
  14. ↑ Nentwig, Wolfgang (2012-12-06). Ecophysiology of Spiders. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN   978-3-642-71552-5.</
  15. ↑ "Intersexual variations in the venom of the Brazilian 'armed' spider Phoneutria nigriventer (Keyserling, 1891)".
  16. ↑ Administration (2018-03-28). "Does Australia have the world's deadliest spiders?". The Lighthouse. Retrieved 2020-04-02.
  17. ↑ Herzig V, John Ward R, Ferreira dos Santos W (2002). "Intersexual variations in the venom of the Brazilian "armed" spider Phoneutria nigriventer (Keyserling, 1891)". Toxicon. 40 (10): 1399–406. doi:10.1016/S0041-0101(02)00136-8. PMID   12368110.
  18. ↑ de Lima, Maria Elena; Figueiredo, Suely Gomes; Matavel, Alessandra; Nunes, Kenia Pedrosa; da Silva, Carolina Nunes; De Marco Almeida, Flávia; Diniz, Marcelo Ribeiro Vasconcelos; do Cordeiro, Marta Nascimento; Stankiewicz, Maria (2016), Gopalakrishnakone, P.; Corzo, Gerardo A.; de Lima, Maria Elena; Diego-García, Elia (eds.), "Phoneutria nigriventer Venom and Toxins: A Review", Spider Venoms, Toxinology, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 71–99, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6389-0_6, ISBN   978-94-007-6389-0 , retrieved 2020-11-01
  19. ↑ Natur und Museum (in German). Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 1987.
  20. ↑ "Venom From the Banana Spider Could Be the New Viagra". National Geographic , September 10, 2012. Accessed July 9, 2019.
  21. ↑ Venomous Animals and their Venoms, vol. III, ed. Wolfgang Bücherl and Eleanor Buckley
  22. ↑ Habermehl, Gerhard G. (2013-03-07). Gift-Tiere und ihre Waffen: Eine Einführung für Biologen, Chemiker und Mediziner Ein Leitfaden für Touristen (in German). Springer-Verlag. ISBN   978-3-642-57925-7.
  23. ↑ Memórias do Instituto Butantan (in European Portuguese). O Instituto. 1952.
  24. ↑ Waring, Rosemary H.; Steventon, Glyn B.; Mitchell, Steve C. (2007). Molecules of Death. Imperial College Press. ISBN   978-1-86094-814-5.
  25. ↑ Bucaretchi, Fábio; Mello, Sueli Moreira; Vieira, Ronan José; Mamoni, Ronei Luciano; Blotta, Maria Heloísa Souza Lima; Antunes, Edson; Hyslop, Stephen (November 2008). "Systemic envenomation caused by the wandering spider Phoneutria nigriventer, with quantification of circulating venom". Clinical Toxicology. 46 (9): 885–889. doi: 10.1080/15563650802258524 . ISSN   1556-9519. PMID   18788004. S2CID   31050013.
  26. ↑ Bucaretchi, Fábio; Bertani, Rogério; De Capitani, Eduardo Mello; Hyslop, Stephen (2018), Vogel, Carl-Wilhelm; Seifert, Steven A.; Tambourgi, Denise V. (eds.), "Envenomation by Wandering Spiders (Genus Phoneutria)", Clinical Toxinology in Australia, Europe, and Americas, Toxinology, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 101–154, doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7438-3_63, ISBN   978-94-017-7438-3 , retrieved 2020-10-29
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