Race and video games

Last updated

The relationship between race and video games has received substantial academic and journalistic attention. Games offer opportunities for players to explore, practice, and re-enforce cultural and social identities. Because of the multifaceted cultural implications of video games, there may be issues of race involved in the player base, the creative process, or within the game's universe. Video games predominantly created and played by one racial group can unintentionally perpetuate racial stereotypes and limit players' choices to preconceived notions of racial bias, [1] and issues of representation and harassment may arise in the industry and the player community.

Contents

Race and gamers

Demographics of gamers

While research has shown the stereotypical image of a gamer to be a white male, [2] the reality of the situation is much more diverse. Gaming's popularity among communities of color changed significantly over a short period of time: while a 2009 study found that 73.9% of white parents said their children play video games, compared to 26.1% of nonwhite parents, [3] a 2015 result showed that 83% of black teens and 69% of Hispanic teens played video games while white teens remained at 71%. [4]

Among adults, another 2015 study found that over half of black and Hispanic adults play video games; although only 11% of black and 19% of Hispanic adults identified as "gamers"). [5] By some calculations, people of color will be the majority of players before 2030. [6]

Experiences of gamers of color

Adrienne Shaw describes how the gamer identities of players intersect with identities of gender, race, and sexuality. Her research looked at the ways that identity shaped the player's own perception of whether or not they may be considered a "gamer" as its own identity and suggested that their rise in popularity among players of color is rooted in its mainstreaming, not any change in the games or development processes to attract diverse audiences. [7]

In online play, gamers of color may experience racial harassment once identified as such, including based on voice chat. This is particularly well-documented for women of color, whose issues are compounded by their intersecting identities. [8] A 2020 survey conducted by the Anti-Defamation League reported that over half of online gamers experienced discrimination, including at least 30% of both black and Hispanic/Latino respondents. [9]

People of color in the gaming industry

According to gaming convention organizer Avinelle Wing, "the industry has an even bigger problem with race than it does with gender.” [10] A report published in 2016 by the International Game Developers Association found that people of color were both underrepresented in senior management roles as well as underpaid in comparison to white developers. [11] The IGDA's 2021 report showed minimal improvement in diversity among employees, with three-quarters of employees in the industry identifying as white. [12]

Many have pointed out that this lack of diversity within the industry has contributed to a lack of representation within video games themselves. [10] [13] Dennis Mathews, a game designer at Revelation Interaction Studios, suggests that the exclusion of non-white game developers leads to stereotyping within video game development and marketing. Developer prejudices impact who counts as a game's target audience, leading many developers to pigeonhole or ignore non-white gamers. Publishers may additionally be subject to their own biases, thereby affecting which games are funded and distributed. [14]

The Game Developers Conference, a popular annual video game conference frequented by both industry and players, runs an "Advocacy Track" to "address new and existing issues within the realm of social advocacy. Topics covered range from diversity to censorship to quality of life." [15] While initially started in 2013 to address issues around gender and gaming, the "Advocacy Track" features panels explicitly interested in improving diversity in gaming more broadly, including concerns around race [16] and representation. [17]

Racial representations in video games

Through interactive gameplay, players learn about race through the types of characters that are portrayed in the virtual reality. Some scholars argue that the way racial groups are portrayed in video games may affect the way video game players perceive defining characteristics of a racial group. [18] The presence or absence of racial groups affects how players belonging to those racial groups see themselves in terms of the development of their own identity and self-esteem. [19] The idea of portraying different races is not something entirely new in the history of video games. Early games, including some MMORPGs like World of Warcraft , featured multiple playable (fictional) races that the player could choose from at the beginning of the game.

Compared to the research on gender stereotyping, fewer studies have examined racial stereotyping in video games. [20]

Light skin tones are seen as the default skin color for many games. [3] A 2015 survey found that 35% of blacks, 36% of Hispanics, and 24% of whites surveyed believe that minorities are portrayed poorly in video games. [21]

Black representation

The portrayal of racial minorities in video games has been demonstrated to have a tendency to follow certain racial stereotypes. In a 2001 study by Children Now, 83% of African-American males were portrayed as competitors in sports-oriented games, while 86% of African-American females were either "props, bystanders, or participants in games, but never competitors." [22] Other research from the era found similar proportions of black characters appearing in sports games. [23] Research by Anna Everett and Craig Watkins in 2007 claimed that since then, the number of black and Latino characters has increased with the rising popularity of "urban/street games," while their portrayal remained consistently narrow, [18] but 2009 research showed that black characters made up just over 10% of characters, primarily adhering to one of these two archetypes. [19] In the action/shooter genre of urban/street games, both blacks and Latinos are typically portrayed as "brutally violent, casually criminal, and sexually promiscuous," while in sports, blacks are typically portrayed as "verbally aggressive and extraordinarily muscular and athletic." [18] African Americans are represented as aggressive or athletic characters [24] more often than as protagonists or heroes. In a study that examined the top 10 most-highly rated games for each year from 2007 to 2012, black characters represented just 3% of main protagonists, [25] in line with Kishonna Gray's suggestion that representations of black people in sports games skew statistics and mask the lack of diversity in other games. [26]

Adam Clayton Powell III argued that the high proportion of black male characters in sports video games have enabled (predominantly white male) gamers to practice what refers to as "high-tech blackface", [27] which David J. Leonard describes as a digital form of minstrelsy that allows white players to effectively 'try on' blackness without being forced to acknowledge or confront the degrading racist histories surrounding minstrelsy. [23] White players who play violent video games as a black avatar show increases in both racial bias and violent tendencies in the player, [28] and black players have been found to self-enforce black stereotypes in game environments. [18]

Hispanic and Latino representation

The 2001 Children Now study claimed that of the 1,716 video game characters analyzed, all Latino characters "appeared in a sports-oriented game, usually baseball." [22] When only the most popular games were studied in 2009, less than 3% of characters were recognizably Hispanic, all non-player characters. [19] Ross Orlando's 2012 examination concurred, finding only 1 percent of characters to be Latino. [25] Some games' protagonists have since broken this trend, like Just Cause 's Rico Rodriguez and Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six's 'Ding' Chavez, who are both Hispanic. Criticism remains that Latino characters are defined by their race, often highlighted by their accents or injected Spanish words in their dialogue, and that Latino characters adhere to classic stereotypes of male violence and female promiscuity. [29]

East Asian representation

The potential for video games as a site for promulgating reductive, racist tropes has prompted many to point out the use of yellowface, the adoption of an East Asian character by white players, to degrade and marginalize East Asian characters in a variety of games as well. Lisa Nakamura coined the term "identity tourism" to address this phenomenon, often fetishizing East Asian women and stereotyping East Asian men as samurais or other warrior types. [30] [31] Anthony Sze-Fai Shiu argues that the differences between Duke Nukem 3D and its spiritual sequel Shadow Warrior (two games which are similar in gameplay but feature a white protagonist in one and a nonspecific East Asian character in the other) are contingent on the idea of a white protagonist as subjective, where the East Asian character is immutably attached to his race and stereotypical culture. [32] Orlando's 2012 study found only 3 percent of protagonists to be East Asian; even among Japanese-made games, three-quarters of protagonists were white. Orlando believes this is because of the Japanese gaming industry's aim at the large North America and Europe markets. [33]

Native American representation

The representation of Native American people and culture has been incorporated into media and video games since the early 1980’s. Most of these depictions revolve around negative stereotypical caricatures of actual Native people and their culture. Depicting Native characters as savages, overly spiritual beings, and even as the target of assault. For example, the first widespread game released depicting a Native character was Custer’s Revenge. Players of this game control the character of General Custer, who is depicted as mostly nude. The objective of the game is to get General Custer across the battlefield so that he can then rape a Native woman tied to a pole on the other side. This game represents a subconscious notion that it is acceptable and almost encouraged to dominate and assault Native people. Custer’s Revenge was later canceled and all available copies recalled after the National YWCA Racial Justice Group took the game to court in October 1982. The YWCA stated that if the game was able to continue production, it would lead to the continuation of a racist-sexist society. [34]

More examples of negative Native American representation in video games include, the video game GUN , Oregon Trail , and Mortal Kombat with the character Nightwolf. These games represent more of the stereotypical Native representation most commonly seen within these forms of media. For instance, both the games GUN and Oregon Trail, depict Native characters as savages and enforces a harmful rhetoric that Native people and their culture is inherently harmful to America’s whiteness, a term used to describe how white people, their customs, culture, and beliefs operate as the standard by which all other groups of are compared. [35] This is also the basis for microaggressions that are carried out on a daily basis against people of color. When it comes to the game Mortal Kombat, the depiction of the character Nightwolf, falls under the stereotype of the mystic-warrior. A term used to characterize a Native person who is deeply connected to the spiritual realm and nature. Nightwolf is a character who is set to defend a fictional realm within the game, his weapons consist of a bow and arrow as well as an ax, Nightwolf can also manipulate the spiritual realm by calling upon spirit animals. This can be seen as a caricature of Native people’s culture and spiritual beliefs as it implies all Natives are somehow whimsical and, in a sense, magical. It generalizes the origin of many Native groups and pushes the narrative that all Native people and cultures are the same.

With that being said, there are instances where Native representation in video games can be more on the positive side. For example, Disney produced a video game after the release of the Pocahontas movie for the Game Boy and Sega Genesis, where players control Pocahontas and her animal sidekick Meeko through an adventure across the forest. This game exactly mirrors the Disney film and is not inherently malicious in intent. Though in more recent years, some may argue that even the depiction of Pocahontas in the film perpetuates the noble-savage stereotype, an archetype that depicts a Native person as being morally good and less savage than their peers, along with the overly spiritual characteristics of her character and setting. However, it is still a huge step forward as far as positive Native depiction goes, especially for a Native woman.

Another positive example of Native representation in video games is the mini game series Molly of Denali , based on the children’s television show of the same name. These games teach children about the Native Alaskan culture by having them follow the character of Molly throughout different daily tasks, traditional events, and culturally specific holidays. The Molly of Denali games not only teach children basic motor-skills, but also the importance of compassion and understanding. Games like Molly of Denali help counteract some of the negativity surrounding Native culture and provide a resource for people of any age to learn about a culture that may differ from their own. This in turn creates a more educated, safe, and culturally aware society for everyone.

Controversies

There have been a number of controversies surrounding race and video games, including public debates about Resident Evil 5 , [36] Sid Meier's Civilization IV: Colonization , [37] Left 4 Dead 2 , BioShock Infinite , Homefront , World of Warcraft , [38] Grand Theft Auto: Vice City , and Genshin Impact . [39] [40]

Video games may influence the learning of young players about race and urban culture. [41] The portrayal of race in some video games such as the Grand Theft Auto series, Custer's Revenge , 50 Cent: Bulletproof , and Def Jam: Fight for NY has been controversial. The 2002 game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City was criticized as promoting racist hate crimes. The game takes place in 1986, in "Vice City", a fictionalized Miami. It involves a gang war between Haitian and Cuban refugees which involves the player's character. [42] [43] However, it is possible to play the game without excessive killing. [44] The 2009 game Resident Evil 5 is set in Africa, and as such has the player kill numerous African antagonists. In response to criticism, promoters of Resident Evil 5 argued that to censor the portrayal of black antagonists was discrimination in itself. [45]

In 2008, the release of Sid Meier's Civilization IV: Colonization was controversial for giving players the ability to colonize the Americas. For some critics, like Ben Fritz, the game was 'offensive' since it allowed players to do "horrific things ... or whitewash some of the worst events of human history." Fritz wrote, "the idea that 2K and Firaxis and Sid Meier himself would make and release a game in the year 2008 that is not only about colonization, but celebrates it by having the player control the people doing the colonizing is truly mind boggling." [46] Firaxis Games' president Steve Martin responded by pointing out how "the game does not endorse any particular position or strategy—players can and should make their own moral judgments." [47] There was significant backlash against Fritz on online forums and blogs, with some players defending in-game colonization as simply a realistic depiction of history. [48] Rebecca Mir and Trevor Owens write that the game must necessarily depict the reality of colonization, and that if there is to be criticism, it should be that the violence of the experience is sanitized for players. [37] Ken White [49] responded to Fritz's post, writing "Empire-building games always involve conflict — often violent — with other people, and the more sophisticated ones almost always depict stronger groups overcoming weaker groups. Many involve religious or cultural conversion of some sort. Many permit digital genocide, with your little nation of abstractions defeating another little nation of abstractions mercilessly.... While the graphics, gameplay detail, and level of abstraction vary widely, they all come down to build, manage, conquer, and destroy." Media theorist Alexander Galloway, in his book, Gaming: Essays on Algorithmic Culture, argues about how these kinds of games are always an "ideological interpretation of history" that attempt to convert the breadth of history into a specific, preordained experience. [50]

Effects and applications

Video games have also had an effect on the ability of racial minorities to express their identities online in semi-protected environments. The extensive ability to modify users' avatars in some multiplayer games, such as Minecraft , allows players to alter their outer appearance in game to match their real life appearance as closely as they choose. [51]

See also

Related Research Articles

In Sociology, tokenism is the social practice of making a perfunctory and symbolic effort towards the equitable inclusion of members of a minority group, especially by recruiting people from under-represented social-minority groups in order for the organization to give the public appearance of racial and gender equality, usually within a workplace or a school. The sociological purpose of tokenism is to give the appearance of inclusivity to a workplace or a school that is not as culturally diverse as the rest of society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nightwolf</span> Mortal Kombat character

Nightwolf is a fictional character in the Mortal Kombat fighting game franchise by Midway Games and NetherRealm Studios. He debuted in Mortal Kombat 3 (1995) as a Native American shaman selected to defend a fictional realm Earthrealm against invading forces from another realm Outworld. In addition to his fighting prowess, Nightwolf possesses magical abilities that allow him to enhance his strength and create weapons.

Symbolic annihilation is a term first used by George Gerbner in 1976 to describe the absence of representation, or underrepresentation, of some group of people in the media, understood in the social sciences to be a means of maintaining social inequality. This term is usually applied to media criticism in the fields of feminism and queer theory to describe the ways in which the media promotes stereotypes and denies specific identities. Gaye Tuchman (1978) divided the concept of symbolic annihilation into three aspects: omission, trivialization and condemnation. This multifaceted approach to coverage not only vilifies communities of identity, but work to make members invisible through the explicit lack of representation in all forms of media ranging from film, song, books, news media and visual art.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBTQ stereotypes</span> Stereotypes around LGBTQ people and communities

LGBTQ stereotypes are stereotypes about lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) people based on their sexual orientations, gender identities, or gender expressions. Stereotypical perceptions may be acquired through interactions with parents, teachers, peers and mass media, or, more generally, through a lack of firsthand familiarity, resulting in an increased reliance on generalizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Video vixen</span> Female models who appear in hip hop music videos and performances

A video vixen is a woman who models and appears in hip hop-oriented music videos. From the 1990s to the early 2010s, the video vixen image was a staple in popular music, particularly within the genre of hip hop. First appearing in the late 1980s, when hip-hop culture began to gain popularity. It was most popular in American pop culture during the 1990s and 2000s. Video vixens are aspiring actors, singers, dancers, or professional models. Artists and vixens have been criticized for allegedly contributing to the social degradation of black women and Latinas.

Ethnic stereotypes in comics have evolved over time, reflecting the changing political climate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stereotypes of African Americans</span>

Stereotypes of African Americans are misleading beliefs about the culture of people with partial or total ancestry from any black racial groups of Africa whose ancestors resided in the United States since before 1865. These stereotypes are largely connected to the racism and the discrimination faced by African Americans. These beliefs date back to the slavery of black people during the colonial era and they have evolved within American society over time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States</span>

Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States are general representations of Americans considered to be of Hispanic and Latino ancestry or immigrants to the United States from Spain or Latin America, often exhibited in negative caricatures or terms. Latin America comprises all the countries in the Americas that were originally colonized by the Spaniards, French, or Portuguese. "Latino" is the umbrella term for people of Latin American descent that in recent years has supplanted the more imprecise and bureaucratic designation "Hispanic." Part of the mystery and the difficulty of comprehension lie in the fact that the territory called Latin America is not homogeneous in nature or culture. Latin American stereotypes have the greatest impact on public perceptions, and Latin Americans were the most negatively rated on several characteristics. Americans' perceptions of the characteristics of Latin American immigrants are often linked to their beliefs about the impact of immigration on unemployment, schools and crime. Latin women are generally hot and make good partners, while latin men are violence sociopaths who should be cut down at the knees.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sheva Alomar</span> Fictional character in the Resident Evil horror video game series by Capcom, introduced 2009

Sheva Alomar is a character in the Resident Evil survival horror video game series created by the Japanese company Capcom. Introduced in the 2009 video game Resident Evil 5, she is a native African operative of an anti-bioterrorism group and the new partner of the series' veteran Chris Redfield. Sheva is controlled by the game's artificial intelligence (AI) when playing with a single player, and is controlled by a second player in the game's cooperative mode.

Historically, the portrayal of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ) people in media has been largely negative if not altogether absent, reflecting a general cultural intolerance of LGBTQ individuals; however, from the 1990s to present day, there has been an increase in the positive depictions of LGBTQ people, issues, and concerns within mainstream media in North America. The LGBTQ communities have taken an increasingly proactive stand in defining their own culture, with a primary goal of achieving an affirmative visibility in mainstream media. The positive portrayal or increased presence of the LGBTQ communities in media has served to increase acceptance and support for LGBT communities, establish LGBTQ communities as a norm, and provide information on the topic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lisa Nakamura</span> American professor

Lisa Nakamura is an American professor of media and cinema studies, Asian American studies, and gender and women’s studies. She teaches at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, where she is also the Coordinator of Digital Studies and the Gwendolyn Calvert Baker Collegiate Professor in the Department of American Cultures.

There are stereotypes of various groups of people which live within the United States and contribute to its culture. Worldwide, a disproportionately high number of people know about these stereotypes, due to the transmission of American culture and values via the exportation of American-made films and television shows.

The representation of African Americans in speech, writing, still or moving pictures has been a major concern in mainstream American culture and a component of media bias in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender representation in video games</span> Portrayal of men, women and LGBT people in video games

The portrayal of gender in video games, as in other media, is a subject of research in gender studies and is discussed in the context of sexism in video gaming. Although women make up about half of video game players, they are significantly underrepresented as characters in mainstream games, despite the prominence of iconic heroines such as Samus Aran or Lara Croft. Women in games often reflect traditional gender roles, sexual objectification, or stereotypes such as the "damsel in distress". Male characters are frequently depicted as big and muscular, and LGBT characters have been slow to appear due to the cis-heteronormativity of the medium.

Sexism in video gaming is prejudiced behavior or discrimination based on sex or gender as experienced by people who play and create video games, primarily women. This may manifest as sexual harassment or in the way genders are represented in games, such as when characters are presented according to gender-related tropes and stereotypes.

Misogynoir is a term referring to the combined force of anti-Black racism and misogyny directed towards black women. The term was coined by black feminist writer Moya Bailey in 2008 to address misogyny directed toward black transgender and cisgender women in American visual and popular culture. The concept of misogynoir is grounded in the theory of intersectionality, which analyzes how various social identities such as race, gender, class, age, ability, and sexual orientation interrelate in systems of oppression.

Racial stereotyping in advertising refers to using assumptions about people based on characteristics thought to be typical of their identifying racial group in marketing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Race in horror films</span>

Depictions of race in horror films have been the subject of commentary by fans and academics. Critics have discussed the representation of race in horror films in relation to the presence of racist ideas, stereotypes and tropes within them. The horror genre has conversely also been used to explore social issues including race, particularly following popularization of social thrillers in the 2010s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tyler Ronan</span> Co-protagonist of the 2020 video game Tell Me Why

Tyler Ronan is a fictional character and the co-protagonist of the 2020 episodic narrative adventure game Tell Me Why, a three-part narrative video game developed by Dontnod Entertainment and published by Xbox Game Studios in 2020. Tell Me Why follows Tyler and his twin sister Alyson as they revisit their childhood home following a long separation. The game's narrative moves between the past and present, as the twins utilize their supernatural telepathic bond to explore memories of their past, some of it repressed, in an attempt to piece together the details of the tragic event that irrevocably impact both of their lives. Tyler Ronan is voiced by American actor August Aiden Black, who is a trans man like the character he portrays.

According to the National Science Foundation (NSF), women and racial minorities are underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Scholars, governments, and scientific organizations from around the world have noted a variety of explanations contributing to this lack of racial diversity, including higher levels of discrimination, implicit bias, microaggressions, chilly climate, lack of role models and mentors, and less academic preparation.

References

  1. ↑ Daniels, Jessie; LaLone, Nick (2014). "Racism in Video Gaming: Connecting Extremist and Mainstream Expressions of White Supremacy". Social Exclusion, Power, and Video Game Play. Lantham, Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 88. ISBN   9780739138601.
  2. ↑ Chess, Shira; Evans, Nathaniel J.; Baines, Joyya JaDawn (1 August 2016). "What Does a Gamer Look Like? Video Games, Advertising, and Diversity". Television & New Media. 18 (1): 37–57. doi:10.1177/1527476416643765. ISSN   1527-4764. S2CID   147073178.
  3. 1 2 Social exclusion, power and video game play : new research in digital media and technology. Embrick, David G., Wright, J. Talmadge., Lukács, András. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. 2012. ISBN   9780739138625. OCLC   793346661.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  4. ↑ "Video Games, Teen Boys and Building Social Skills and Friendships | Pew Research Center". Pewinternet.org. 6 August 2015. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  5. ↑ Monica Anderson2 comments (17 December 2015). "Views on gaming differ by race, ethnicity | Pew Research Center". Pewresearch.org. Retrieved 18 January 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ Packwood, Damon (31 October 2018). "The era of white male games for white male gamers is ending". Quartz. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  7. ↑ Adrienne Shaw (2012). "Do you identify as a gamer? Gender, race, sexuality, and gamer identity". New Media and Society. 14 (1): 28–44. doi:10.1177/1461444811410394. S2CID   206727217.
  8. ↑ Gray, Kishonna L. (1 April 2012). "Intersecting Oppressions and Online Communities". Information, Communication & Society. 15 (3): 411–428. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2011.642401. ISSN   1369-118X. S2CID   142726754.
  9. ↑ "Free to Play? Hate, Harassment and Positive Social Experience in Online Games 2020". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  10. 1 2 Ong, Sandy (13 October 2016). "The Video Game Industry's Problem With Racial Diversity". Newsweek.com. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  11. ↑ "Developer Satisfaction Survey 2014 & 2015 – Diversity in the Games Industry Report" (PDF). International Game Developers Association. 12 September 2016. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
  12. ↑ "Developer Satisfaction Survey 2021: Summary Report" (PDF). International Game Developers Association. 13 September 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  13. ↑ Owen Good (14 September 2009). "Minority Report: The Non-White Gamer's Experience". Kotaku.com. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  14. ↑ McWhertor, Michael (5 March 2015). "Black developers speak out on stereotypes in gaming". Polygon.com. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  15. ↑ "GDC 2017 | February 27 — March 3, 2017 | Moscone Convention Center | San Francisco, California". Gdconf.com. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  16. ↑ "GDC 2013 adds 'Advocacy Track' talks on women in games, games' public image – GDC News". Gdconf.com. 21 February 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  17. ↑ "Black Games in Review GDC". YouTube . 25 August 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  18. 1 2 3 4 Everett, Anna; Watkins, Craig (2008), "The Power of Play: The Portrayal and Performance of Race in Video Games" (PDF), The Ecology of Games: Connecting Youth, Games, and Learning, The MIT Press
  19. 1 2 3 Williams, Dmitri; Martins, Nicole; Consalvo, Mia; Ivory, James D. (2009). "The virtual census: representations of gender, race and age in video games". New Media & Society. 11 (5): 815–834. doi:10.1177/1461444809105354. S2CID   18036858.
  20. ↑ "Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games". Handbook of Research on Effective Electronic Gaming in Education. LIII.
  21. ↑ "Views on gaming differ by race, ethnicity". Pew Research Center. 17 December 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
  22. 1 2 Glaubke, Christina R.; Miller, Patti; Parker, Mccrae A.; Espejo, Eileen (2001), Fair Play? Violence, Gender and Race in Video Games, Children Now
  23. 1 2 "Gaming – High Tech Blackface – Leonard". Intelligentagent.com. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  24. ↑ Everett, Anna. "Race in Games" (PDF). Games Tech Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2018. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  25. 1 2 Shoemaker, Stephen (4 June 2014). "Researcher examines racial and gender representation in top 50 video games". Phys.org.
  26. ↑ "Confronting racial bias in video games". TechCrunch. 21 June 2020. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  27. ↑ Michael Marriott (21 October 1999). "Blood, Gore, Sex and Now: Race". The New York Times . Retrieved 18 January 2017.
  28. ↑ "Playing as black: Avatar race affects white video game players". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  29. ↑ "Portrayals of Latinx Characters in 2020 Video Games Already Have Me Tired". Fanbyte. 10 July 2020. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  30. ↑ Kung, Jess (31 August 2019). "Should Your Avatar's Skin Match Yours?". NPR. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
  31. ↑ Nakamura, Lisa (1995). "Race in/for cyberspace: Identity tourism and racial passing on the Internet" (PDF). Works and Days. 13: 1–2.
  32. ↑ Szai-Fai Shiu, A (2006). "What Yellowface Hides: Video Games, Whiteness, and the American Racial Order". The Journal of Popular Culture. 39: 109–125. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5931.2006.00206.x.
  33. ↑ Shoemaker, Stephen; College, Ithaca. "Researcher examines racial and gender representation in top 50 video games". phys.org. Retrieved 26 April 2022. Of the games developed in Japan, Orlando notes that 75 percent feature white main characters. "Which was kind of the most interesting finding. I attribute that, more than anything, to business and marketing to the large markets that are North America and Europe.
  34. ↑ Lutheran Council in the USA; OHOYO Research Center; National Board YWCA (1 January 1982). "Custer's Revenge Video Game". LaDonna Harris Native American Collection.
  35. ↑ "Whiteness". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Retrieved 7 December 2024.
  36. ↑ André Brock (2011). "'When Keeping it Real Goes Wrong': Resident Evil 5, Racial Representation, and Gamers". Games and Culture. 6 (5): 429–52. doi:10.1177/1555412011402676. S2CID   146539948.
  37. 1 2 Rebecca Mir; Trevor Owens (2013). "Modeling indigenous peoples: Unpacking ideology in Sid Meier's colonization" (PDF). Playing with the Past: Digital Games and the Simulation of History: 91–106. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2017. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
  38. ↑ Nakamura, Lisa (2009). "Don't Hate the Player, Hate the Game: The Racialization of Labor in World of Warcraft". Critical Studies in Media Communication. 26 (2): 128–144. doi:10.1080/15295030902860252. S2CID   51999250.
  39. ↑ Morris, Seren (6 April 2021). "'Genshin Impact' critics call for boycott amid racism and pedophilia claims". Newsweek. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  40. ↑ Asarch, Steven (7 April 2021). "Gamers say they're boycotting popular role-playing title 'Genshin Impact' amid allegations of colorism". Business Insider . Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  41. ↑ Everett A., Watkins C. and Salen K (ed.) "The Power of play: the portrayal and performance of race in video games. The ecology of games: connecting youth, games and learning." The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 2008 p141–166. doi : 10.1162/dmal.9780262693646.141
  42. ↑ "Haitian-Americans protest Vice City." GameSpot website Accessed 18 August 2006.
  43. ↑ "Take-two: self censoring "Vice City"." GameSpot website. Accessed 18 August 2006.
  44. ↑ Hourigan B. "The moral code of grand theft auto IV." Archived 2013-12-17 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 1 December 2013.
  45. ↑ Jamin Brophy-Warren (12 March 2009). "'Resident Evil 5' Reignites Debate About Race in Videogames". WSJ. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
  46. ↑ "Ben Fritz, "Civilization IV: Colonization... Wow that looks offensive". [This link no longer loads from Variety.com]". Variety. 25 June 2008. Retrieved 10 September 2008.
  47. ↑ ""Firaxis responds to my Colonization post". Variety. 2008-06-27. Archived from the original on 2010-09-30". Archived from the original on 30 September 2010. Retrieved 14 October 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  48. ↑ "The Escapist : Forums : The News Room : Civilization IV: Colonization Called 'Morally Disturbing'". The Escapist. Archived from the original on 18 October 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  49. ↑ "Variety's "The Cut Scene" Blog Shocked That Non-Pretend Events Depicted In Games". Popehat. 27 June 2008. Archived from the original on 9 September 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  50. ↑ Galloway (2006). Gaming: Essays on Algorithmic Culture. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN   978-0-8166-4851-1.
  51. ↑ Lewis Ellison, Tisha (July 2017). "Digital Participation, Agency, and Choice: An African American Youth's Digital Storytelling About Minecraft". Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy. 61 (1): 25–35. doi: 10.1002/jaal.645 .
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.