Russula brevipes

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Russula brevipes
Russula brevipes.JPG
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Russulales
Family: Russulaceae
Genus: Russula
Species:
R. brevipes
Binomial name
Russula brevipes
Peck (1890)
Synonyms [1]
  • Russula brevipes var. acriorShaffer (1964) [2]
  • Russula brevipes var. megasporaShaffer (1964) [2]
Russula brevipes
Information icon.svg
Gills icon.png Gills on hymenium
Flat cap icon.svgInfundibuliform cap icon.svg Cap is flat or infundibuliform
Decurrent gills icon2.svg Hymenium is decurrent
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is white
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgEcology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Edible.pngEdibility is edible

Russula brevipes is a species of mushroom commonly known as the short-stemmed russula or the stubby brittlegill. It is widespread in North America, and was reported from Pakistan in 2006. The fungus grows in a mycorrhizal association with trees from several genera, including fir, spruce, Douglas-fir, and hemlock. Fruit bodies are white and large, with convex to funnel-shaped caps measuring 7–30 cm (3–12 in) wide set atop a thick stipe up to 8 cm (3 in) long. The gills on the cap underside are closely spaced and sometimes have a faint bluish tint. Spores are roughly spherical, and have a network-like surface dotted with warts.

Contents

The mushrooms of Russula brevipes often develop under masses of conifer needles or leaves of broadleaved trees, and fruit from summer to autumn. Forms of the mushroom that develop a bluish band at the top of the stipe are sometimes referred to as variety acrior. Although edible, Russula brevipes mushrooms have a bland or bitter flavor. They become more palatable once parasitized by the ascomycete fungus Hypomyces lactifluorum , a bright orange mold that covers the fruit body and transforms them into lobster mushrooms.

Taxonomy

Russula brevipes was initially described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1890, from specimens collected in Quogue, New York. [3] It is classified in the subsection Lactaroideae, a grouping of similar Russula species characterized by having whitish to pale yellow fruit bodies, compact and hard flesh, abundant lamellulae (short gills), and the absence of clamp connections. Other related Russula species with a similar range of spore ornamentation heights include Russula delica , R. romagnesiana , and R. pseudodelica . [2]

There has been considerable confusion in the literature over the naming of Russula brevipes. Some early 20th-century American mycologists referred to it as Russula delica, although that fungus was described from Europe by Elias Fries with a description not accurately matching the North American counterparts. Fries's concept of R. delica included: a white fruit body that did not change color; a smooth, shiny cap; and thin, widely spaced gills. To add to the confusion, Rolf Singer and later Robert Kühner and Henri Romagnesi described other species they named Russula delica. Robert Shaffer summarized the taxonomic conundrum in 1964:

Russula delica is a species that everybody knows, so to speak, but the evidence indicates that R. delica sensu Fries (1838) is not R. delica sensu Singer (1938), which in turn is not R. delica sensu Kühner and Romagnesi (1953)… It is best to use R. brevipes for the North American collections which most authors but not Kühner and Romagnesi (1953), call R. delica. The name, R. brevipes, is attached to a type collection, has a reasonably explicit original description, and provides a stable point about which a species concept can be formed. [2]

Shaffer defined the Russula brevipes varieties acrior and megaspora in 1964 from Californian specimens. The former is characterized by a greenish-blue band that forms at the top of the stipe, while the latter variety has large spores. [2] The nomenclatural database Index Fungorum does not consider these varieties to have independent taxonomical significance. [1] In a 2012 publication, mycologist Mike Davis and colleagues suggest that western North American Russula brevipes comprise a complex of at least four distinct species. [4] According to MycoBank, the European species Russula chloroides is synonymous with R. brevipes, [5] although Index Fungorum and other sources consider them distinct species.

The specific epithet brevipes is derived from the Latin words brevis "short" and pes "foot", hence "short-footed". [6] Common names used to refer to the mushroom include short-stemmed russula, [7] short-stalked white russula, [8] and stubby brittlegill. [9]

Description

A greenish band can develop at the top of the stipe. Russula brevipes 380443.jpg
A greenish band can develop at the top of the stipe.

Fully grown, the cap can range from 7 to 30 cm (3 to 12 in) in diameter, whitish to dull-yellow, and is funnel-shaped with a central depression. The gills are narrow and thin, decurrent in attachment, nearly white when young but becoming pale yellow to buff with age, and sometimes forked near the stipe. The stipe is 3–8 cm long and 2.5–4 cm thick. It is initially white but develops yellowish-brownish discolorations with age. [10] The mushroom sometimes develops a pale green band at the top of the stipe. [11] The spore print is white to light cream. [10]

Spores of R. brevipes are egg-shaped to more or less spherical, and measure 7.5–10 by 6.5–8.5  µm; [9] they have a partially reticulate (network-like) surface dotted with warts measuring up to 1 µm high. [4] The cap cuticle is arranged in the form of a cutis (characterized by hyphae that run parallel to the cap surface) comprising interwoven hyphae with rounded tips. There are no cystidia on the cap (pileocystidia). [12]

The variant R. brevipes var. acrior Shaffer has a subtle green shading at the stipe apex and on the gills. [10] R. brevipes var. megaspora has spores measuring 9–14 by 8–12 µm. [2]

Similar species

Russula delica is one of several R. brevipes look-alikes Russ.del.jpg
Russula delica is one of several R. brevipes look-alikes

The subalpine waxy cap ( Hygrophorus subalpinus ) is somewhat similar in appearance to R. brevipes but lacks its brittle flesh, and it has a sticky, glutinous cap. [13] The Pacific Northwest species Russula cascadensis also resembles R. brevipes, but has an acrid taste and smaller fruit bodies. [14] Another lookalike, R. vesicatoria , has gills that often fork near the stipe attachment. [15] R. angustispora is quite similar to R. brevipes, but has narrower spores measuring 6.5–8.5 by 4.5–5 µm, and it does not have the pale greenish band that sometimes develops in the latter species. [11] The European look-alike R. delica is widely distributed, although rarer in the northern regions of the continent. Similar to R. brevipes in overall morphology, it has somewhat larger spores (9–12 by 7–8.5 µm) with a surface ornamentation featuring prominent warts interconnected by a zebra-like patterns of ridges. [8] The milk-cap mushroom Lactifluus piperatus can be distinguished from R. brevipes by the production of latex when the mushroom tissue is cut or injured. [16]

Distribution and habitat

It is a common ectomycorrhizal fungus associated with several hosts across temperate forest ecosystems. Typical hosts include trees in the genera Abies , Picea , Pseudotsuga , and Tsuga . [17] The fungus has been reported in Pakistan's Himalayan moist temperate forests associated with Pinus wallichiana . [18] Fruit bodies grow singly or in groups; fruiting season occurs from summer to autumn. [9] In western North America, where the mushroom is quite common, it is encountered most frequently in late autumn. [19] The mushrooms are usually found as "shrumps"—low, partially emerged mounds on the forest floor, [20] and have often been partially consumed by mammals such as rodents or deer. [21]

Studies have demonstrated that geographically separated R. brevipes populations (globally and continentally) develop significant genetic differentiation, suggesting that gene flow between these populations is small. [21] In contrast, there was little genetic differentiation observed between populations sampled from a smaller area (less than approximately 1000 meters). [22] R. brevipes is one of several Russula species that associates with the myco-heterotrophic orchid Limodorum abortivum . [23]

Edibility

"Although attractive when clean and crisp, this harmless, prolific mushroom is constantly maligned because it mimics prized edibles such as the white matsutake and forms promising "shrumps" like those of the king bolete and chanterelle."

David Arora [20]

Russula brevipes is a non-descript edible species that tends to assume the flavors of meats and sauces it is cooked with. [13] It is one of several Russula species harvested in the wild from Mexico's Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park and sold in local markets in nearby Ozumba. [24] The mushrooms are suitable for pickling due to their crisp texture. [25]

Fruit bodies are commonly parasitized by the ascomycete Hypomyces lactifluorum , transforming them into an edible known as a lobster mushroom. In this form, the surface of the fruit body develops into a hard, thin crust dotted with minute pimples, and the gills are reduced to blunt ridges. [10] The flesh of the mushroom—normally brittle and crumbly—becomes compacted and less breakable. [26] Mycologist David Arora wrote in his book Mushrooms Demystified that R. brevipes is "edible, but better kicked than picked". [27]

Bioactive compounds

Sesquiterpene lactones are a diverse group of biologically active compounds that are being investigated for their antiinflammatory and antitumor activities. [28] [29] Some of these compounds have been isolated and chemically characterized from Russula brevipes: russulactarorufin, lactarorufin-A, and 24-ethyl-cholesta-7,22E-diene-3β,5α,6β-triol. [30]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Russula</i> Genus of fungi

Russula is a very large genus composed of around 750 worldwide species of ectomycorrhizal mushrooms. They are typically common, fairly large, and brightly colored – making them one of the most recognizable genera among mycologists and mushroom collectors. Their distinguishing characteristics include usually brightly coloured caps, a white to dark yellow spore print, brittle, attached gills, an absence of latex, and absence of partial veil or volva tissue on the stem. Microscopically, the genus is characterised by the amyloid ornamented spores and flesh (trama) composed of spherocysts. Members of the related genus Lactarius have similar characteristics but emit a milky latex when their gills are broken. The genus was described by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1796.

<i>Russula emetica</i> Species of fungus in the family Russulaceae with a wide distribution in the Northern Hemisphere

Russula emetica, commonly known as the sickener, emetic russula, or vomiting russula, is a basidiomycete mushroom, and the type species of the genus Russula. It has a red, convex to flat cap up to 8.5 cm (3.3 in) in diameter, with a cuticle that can be peeled off almost to the centre. The gills are white to pale cream, and closely spaced. A smooth white stem measures up to 10.5 cm (4.1 in) long and 2.4 cm (0.9 in) thick. First described in 1774, the mushroom has a wide distribution in the Northern Hemisphere, where it grows on the ground in damp woodlands in a mycorrhizal association with conifers, especially pine.

<i>Russula xerampelina</i> Species of fungus

Russula xerampelina, also commonly known as the shrimp russula, crab brittlegill, or shrimp mushroom, is a basidiomycete mushroom of the brittlegill genus Russula. Two subspecies are recognised. The fruiting bodies appear in coniferous woodlands in autumn in northern Europe and North America. Their caps are coloured various shades of wine-red, purple to green. Mild tasting and edible, it is one of the most highly regarded brittlegills for the table. It is also notable for smelling of shellfish or crab when fresh.

<i>Russula cyanoxantha</i> Species of fungus

Russula cyanoxantha, synonymous with R. xyanoxantha, commonly known as the charcoal burner or variegated russula, is a basidiomycete mushroom, distinguished from most other members of the genus Russula by the fact that its gills do not split, but are soft and flexible. It is one of the most common species of Russula in Europe.

<i>Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca</i> Species of fungus in the family Hygrophoropsidaceae

Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca, commonly known as the false chanterelle, is a species of fungus in the family Hygrophoropsidaceae. It is found across several continents, growing in woodland and heathland, and sometimes on woodchips used in gardening and landscaping. Fruit bodies (mushrooms) are yellow–orange, with a funnel-shaped cap up to 8 cm across that has a felt-like surface. The thin, often forked gills on the underside of the cap run partway down the length of the otherwise smooth stipe. Reports on the mushroom's edibility vary – it is considered poisonous, but has historically been eaten in parts of Europe and the Americas.

<i>Neolentinus ponderosus</i> Species of fungus

Neolentinus ponderosus, commonly known as the giant sawgill, or ponderous lentinus, is a species of fungus in the family Gloeophyllaceae. Found in western North America, it was originally described in 1965 as a species of Lentinus by American mycologist Orson K. Miller.

<i>Russula aeruginea</i> Species of fungus

Russula aeruginea, also known as the grass-green russula, the tacky green russula, or the green russula, is an edible Russula mushroom. Widely distributed in northern temperate regions, it is usually found under birch, mostly in pine forests. The very poisonous death cap can have a similar appearance, especially from above.

<i>Lactifluus piperatus</i> Species of fungus

Lactifluus piperatus, commonly known as the blancaccio, is a semi-edible basidiomycete fungus of the genus Lactifluus. Despite being edible, it is not recommended by some because of its poor taste, though can be used as seasoning when dried. The fruiting body is a creamy-white mushroom which is funnel-shaped when mature, with exceptionally crowded gills. It bleeds a whitish peppery-tasting milk when cut. Widely distributed across Europe and eastern North America, Lactifluus piperatus has been accidentally introduced to Australia. Mycorrhizal, it forms a symbiotic relationship with various species of deciduous tree, including beech, and hazel, and fruiting bodies are found on the forest floor in deciduous woodland.

<i>Russula delica</i> Species of fungus

Russula delica is a mushroom that goes by the common name of milk-white brittlegill, and is a member of the genus Russula, all of which are collectively known as brittlegills. It is mostly white, with ochraceous or brownish cap markings, and a short robust stem. It is edible, but poor in taste, and grows in coniferous, broadleaved, or mixed woods. It can be confused with other white Russula species and certain white Lactarius species.

<i>Lactarius indigo</i> Edible fungus in the family Russulaceae from eastern North America, East Asia, and Central America

Lactarius indigo, commonly known as the indigo milk cap, indigo milky, the indigo lactarius, or the blue milk mushroom, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Russulaceae. It is a widely distributed species, growing naturally in eastern North America, East Asia, and Central America; it has also been reported in southern France. L. indigo grows on the ground in both deciduous and coniferous forests, where it forms mycorrhizal associations with a broad range of trees. The fruit body color ranges from dark blue in fresh specimens to pale blue-gray in older ones. The milk, or latex, that oozes when the mushroom tissue is cut or broken — a feature common to all members of the genus Lactarius — is also indigo blue, but slowly turns green upon exposure to air. The cap has a diameter of 5–15 cm (2–6 in), and the stem is 2–8 cm (0.8–3 in) tall and 1–2.5 cm (0.4–1.0 in) thick. It is an edible mushroom, and is sold in rural markets in China, Guatemala, and Mexico. In Honduras, the mushroom is called a chora, and is generally eaten with egg; generally as a side dish for a bigger meal.

<i>Suillus brevipes</i> Species of edible fungus in the family Suillaceae found throughout North America

Suillus brevipes is a species of fungus in the family Suillaceae. First described by American mycologists in the late 19th century, it is commonly known as the stubby-stalk or the short-stemmed slippery Jack. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) produced by the fungus are characterized by a chocolate to reddish-brown cap covered with a sticky layer of slime, and a short whitish stipe that has neither a partial veil nor prominent, colored glandular dots. The cap can reach a diameter of about 10 cm, while the stipe is up to 6 cm long and 2 cm thick. Like other bolete mushrooms, S. brevipes produces spores in a vertically arranged layer of spongy tubes with openings that form a layer of small yellowish pores on the underside of the cap.

<i>Hygrophorus subalpinus</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus subalpinus, commonly known as the subalpine waxycap, is a species of white snowbank fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. Found in the mountains of western North America, it is found growing on the ground under conifers, usually near snowbanks.

<i>Russula albidula</i> Species of fungus

Russula albidula is a species of mushroom in the genus Russula. The species, known in the vernacular as the boring white russula or the whitish brittlegill, is nondescript, with a small or medium dirty white fruit body, and a highly acrid taste. It is found in eastern North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lactifluus deceptivus</span> Species of fungus

Lactifluus deceptivus, commonly known as the deceiving milkcap, is a common species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. It is found throughout eastern North America on the ground in coniferous forests near hemlock or deciduous forests near oak, and in oak-dominated forests of Costa Rica. It produces large mushrooms with funnel-shaped caps reaching up to 25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter, on top of hard white stems that may reach 4–10 cm (1.6–3.9 in) long and up to 3 cm (1.2 in) thick. The gills are closely spaced together and yellowish-cream in color. When young, the cap is white in all parts, but the depressed center becomes dull brownish in age and breaks up into scales. The edge of the cap has a roll of cottony tissue that collapses as the cap expands. The surface of the stem—especially near the base—has a velvety texture. The mushroom "bleeds" a milky white acrid latex when it is cut or injured. Similar milk-cap species with which L. deceptivus might be confused include Lactifluus piperatus, L. pseudodeceptivus, L. caeruleitinctus, L. subvellereus, Lactarius arcuatus and Lactarius parvulus.

<i>Suillus pungens</i> Species of fungus in the family Suillaceae found in California

Suillus pungens, commonly known as the pungent slippery jack or the pungent suillus, is a species of fungus in the genus Suillus. The fruit bodies of the fungus have slimy convex caps up to 14 cm (5.5 in) wide. The mushroom is characterized by the very distinct color changes that occur in the cap throughout development. Typically, the young cap is whitish, later becoming grayish-olive to reddish-brown or a mottled combination of these colors. The mushroom has a dotted stem (stipe) up to 7 cm (2.8 in) long, and 2 cm (0.8 in) thick. On the underside on the cap is the spore-bearing tissue consisting of minute vertically arranged tubes that appear as a surface of angular, yellowish pores. The presence of milky droplets on the pore surface of young individuals, especially in humid environments, is a characteristic feature of this species. S. pungens can usually be distinguished from other similar Suillus species by differences in distribution, odor and taste. The mushroom is considered edible, but not highly regarded.

<i>Hygrophorus purpurascens</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus purpurascens, commonly known as the purple-red waxy cap, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Hygrophoraceae. Its cap has a pink background color with streaks of purplish red overlaid, and mature gills have red spots.

<i>Pholiota nubigena</i> Species of fungus

Pholiota nubigena, commonly known as the gastroid pholiota or the bubble gum fungus, is a species of secotioid fungus in the family Strophariaceae. It is found in mountainous areas of the western United States, where it grows on rotting conifer wood, often fir logs. It fruits in spring, often under snow, and early summer toward the end of the snowmelt period in high mountain forests. Fruit bodies appear similar to unopened mushrooms, measuring 1–4 centimetres tall with 1–2.4 cm diameter caps that are whitish to brownish. They have a short but distinct whitish stipe that extend through the internal spore mass (gleba) of the fruit body into the cap. The gleba consists of irregular chambers made of contorted gills that are brownish in color. A whitish, cottony partial veil is present in young specimens, but it often disappears in age and does not leave a ring on the stipe.

<i>Russula densifolia</i> Species of agaric fungus

Russula densifolia, commonly known as the crowded russula or the reddening russula, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Russulaceae. It was first described in 1833 and given its current name in 1876. A widespread species, it is found in Asia, Europe, and North America, where it fruits on the ground in mixed and deciduous forests. Fruit bodies (mushrooms) are robust and squat, with caps up to 14.5 cm (5.7 in) in diameter, and stems that are 2–7.5 cm (0.8–3.0 in) long by 1.2–2.5 cm (0.5–1.0 in) thick. The mushrooms are characterized by the red and then black color changes that occur in the flesh when it is bruised, and a relatively thick cap cuticle. Although the mushroom is sold as an edible species in some areas of Asia, it is mild to moderately toxic, and may cause gastrointestinal upset if consumed. Several bioactive compounds have been isolated and identified from the mushroom.

<i>Russula crustosa</i> Species of fungus

Russula crustosa, commonly known as the crusty russula, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. It is found in Asia and North America.

<i>Hygrophorus russula</i> Species of fungus

Hygrophorus russula, commonly known as the pinkmottle woodwax, false russula, or russula-like waxy cap, is a fungus native to North America and Europe.

References

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  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Shaffer Robert L. (1964). "The subsection Lactariodeae of Russula". Mycologia. 56 (2): 202–31. doi:10.2307/3756537. JSTOR   3756537.
  3. ↑ Peck CH. (1890). "Report of the Botanist (1889)" (PDF). Annual Report on the New York State Museum of Natural History. 43: 20.
  4. 1 2 Davis RM, Sommer R, Menge JA (2012). Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 105–6. ISBN   978-0-520-95360-4.
  5. ↑ "Russula brevipes Peck, Annual Report on the New York State Museum of Natural History 43: 66, t. 2:5-8 (1890)". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2014-03-17.
  6. ↑ Simpson DP. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5 ed.). London: Cassell. p. 883. ISBN   978-0-304-52257-6.
  7. ↑ Ostry ME, O'Brien JG, Anderson NA (2011). Field Guide to Common Macrofungi in Eastern Forests and Their Ecosystem Functions. Government Printing Office. p. 71. ISBN   978-0-16-088611-9.
  8. 1 2 Courtecuisse R. (1999). Mushrooms of Britain and Europe. Collins Wildlife Trust Guides. London, UK: HarperCollins. pp. 698, 701. ISBN   978-0-00-220012-7.
  9. 1 2 3 McKnight KH. (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms: North America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 318. ISBN   978-0-395-91090-0.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Arora D. (1986). Mushrooms Demystified . Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. pp.  87–8. ISBN   978-0-89815-169-5.
  11. 1 2 Roody WC. (2003). Mushrooms of West Virginia and the Central Appalachians. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. p. 217. ISBN   0-8131-9039-8.
  12. ↑ Kuo M. (March 2009). "Russula brevipes". MushroomExpert.com. Retrieved 2014-06-23.
  13. 1 2 Ammirati JF, McKenny M, Stuntz DE (1987). The New Savory Wild Mushroom. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press. p. 68. ISBN   978-0-295-96480-5.
  14. ↑ Phillips R. "Russula brevipes". Rogers Mushrooms. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
  15. ↑ Miller HR, Miller OK (2006). North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Connecticut: Falcon Guide. p. 76. ISBN   978-0-7627-3109-1.
  16. ↑ Binion D, Stephenson SL, Roody WC, Burdsall HH Jr, Vasilyeva LN, Miller OK Jr (2008). Macrofungi Associated with Oaks of Eastern North America. West Virginia: West Virginia University Press. p. 243. ISBN   978-1933202365.
  17. ↑ Kernaghan G, Currah RS, Bayer S (1997). "Russulaceous ectomycorrhizae of Abies lasiocarpa and Picea engelmannii". Canadian Journal of Botany. 75 (11): 1843–50. doi:10.1139/b97-896.
  18. ↑ Niazi AR, Iqbal SH, Khalid AN (2006). "Biodiversity of mushrooms and ectomycorrhizas. 1. Russula brevipes Peck., and its ectomycorrhiza – A new record from Himalayan moist temperate forests of Pakistan" (PDF). Pakistan Journal of Botany. 38 (4): 1271–7.
  19. ↑ Wood M, Stevens F. "Russula brevipes". California Fungi. MykoWeb. Retrieved 2014-03-19.
  20. 1 2 Arora D. (1991). All the Rain Promises and More. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. p. 27. ISBN   978-0898153880.
  21. 1 2 Bergemann SE, Miller SL (2002). "Size, distribution, and persistence of genets in local populations of the late-stage ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete, Russula brevipes". New Phytologist. 156 (2): 313–30. doi: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2002.00507.x . JSTOR   1514022. PMID   33873278.
  22. ↑ Bergemann SE, Douhan GW, Garbelotto M, Miller SL (2006). "No evidence of population structure across three isolated subpopulations of Russula brevipes in an oak/pine woodland". New Phytologist. 170 (1): 177–84. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01654.x . PMID   16539614. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  23. ↑ Girlanda M, Selosse MA, Cafasso D, Brilli F, Delfine S, Fabbian R, Ghignone S, Pinelli P, Segreto R, Loreto F, Cozzolino S, Perotto S (2006). "Inefficient photosynthesis in the Mediterranean orchid Limodorum abortivum is mirrored by specific association to ectomycorrhizal Russulaceae". Molecular Ecology. 15 (2): 491–504. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02770.x. PMID   16448415. S2CID   40474597.
  24. ↑ Dugan FM. (2011). Conspectus of World Ethnomycology. St. Paul, Minnesota: American Phytopathological Society. p. 78. ISBN   978-0-89054-395-5.
  25. ↑ Orr DB, Orr RT (1979). Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 186. ISBN   978-0-520-03656-7.
  26. ↑ Spahr DL. (2009). Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms of New England and Eastern Canada. North Atlantic Books. p. 151. ISBN   978-1-55643-795-3.
  27. ↑ Thiers, Harry D.; Arora, David (September 1980). "Mushrooms Demystified". Mycologia. 72 (5): 1054. doi:10.2307/3759750. ISSN   0027-5514.
  28. ↑ Ghantous A, Gali-Muhtasib H, Vuorela H, Saliba NA, Darwiche N (2010). "What made sesquiterpene lactones reach cancer clinical trials?". Drug Discovery Today. 15 (15–16): 668–78. doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2010.06.002. PMID   20541036.
  29. ↑ Merfort I. (2011). "Perspectives on sesquiterpene lactones in inflammation and cancer". Current Drug Targets. 12 (11): 1560–73. doi:10.2174/138945011798109437. PMID   21561425.
  30. ↑ Suri OP, Shah R, Satti NK, Suri KA (1997). "Russulactarorufin, a lactarane skeleton sesquiterpene from Russula brevipes". Phytochemistry. 45 (7): 1453–5. Bibcode:1997PChem..45.1453S. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(97)00121-0.
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