SMS Grosser Kurfürst[lower-alpha 1] (or Großer[lower-alpha 2]) was an ironclad turret ship built for the German Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy). She was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven in 1870 and completed in 1878; her long construction time was in part due to a redesign that was completed after work on the ship had begun. Her main battery of four 26cm (10in) guns was initially to be placed in a central armored battery, but during the redesign, this was altered to a pair of twin gun turrets amidships.
Grosser Kurfürst was sunk on her maiden voyage when she was accidentally rammed by the ironclad SMSKönig Wilhelm. The two ships, along with SMSPreussen, were steaming in the English Channel on 31 May 1878. The three ships encountered a group of fishing boats under sail; in turning to avoid them, Grosser Kurfürst inadvertently crossed König Wilhelm's path and was rammed, sinking within about fifteen minutes. Between 269 and 284 of her crew drowned. Her loss spurred a series of investigations into the circumstances of the collision, which ultimately resulted in the acquittal of both Rear Admiral Karl Ferdinand Batsch[de], the squadron commander, and Count Alexander von Monts, the captain of Grosser Kurfürst. Political infighting over the affair led to the ousting of Rear Admiral Reinhold von Werner from the navy.
The three Preussen-class ironclads were authorized under the naval program of 1867, which had been approved by the Reichstag (Imperial Diet) to strengthen the North German Federal Navy in the wake of the Second Schleswig War, when the weak Prussian Navy had been unable to break the blockade imposed by the Danish Navy. Initially ordered as casemate ships, the vessels were re-designed as turret ships; they were the first uniform class of ironclads built for the German fleet.[1]
Grosser Kurfürst was 96.59 meters (316.9ft)long overall and had a beam of 16.30m (53.5ft) and a draft of 7.12m (23.4ft) forward.[2] The ship was powered by one 3-cylinder single-expansion steam engine, which drove a single screw propeller. Steam was supplied by six coal-fired transverse trunk boilers, which were vented into a single funnel. The ship's top speed was 14 knots (26km/h; 16mph), at 5,468 metric horsepower (5,393ihp). She was also equipped with a full ship rig of sails. Her standard complement was 46 officers and 454 enlisted men.[3]
She was armed with a main battery of four 26cm (10in) L/22 guns mounted in a pair of turrets placed on the centerlineamidships.[lower-alpha 3] As built, the ship was also equipped with two 17cm (6.7in) RK L/25 guns as chase guns, one in the bow and one in the stern.[4]Grosser Kurfürst's armor was made of wrought iron backed with teak. The armored belt was arrayed in two strakes. The upper strake was 203mm (8in) thick; the lower strake ranged in thickness from 102 to 229mm (4 to 9in). Both were backed with 234 to 260mm (9.2 to 10.2in) of teak. The gun turrets were protected by 203 to 254mm (8 to 10in) armor on the sides, backed by 260mm of teak.[2]
Service history
Grosser Kurfürst underway
Grosser Kurfürst ("Great Elector") was ordered by the Imperial Navy from the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Dockyard) in Wilhelmshaven; the date of her keel laying is unclear. According to the historian Erich Gröner, work on the ship began in 1869 under construction number 2,[2] but the historians Hans Hildebrand, Albert Röhr, and Hans-Otto Steinmetz state that construction work on the newly built Kaiserliche Werft was not completed until December 1869, and that it was not clear whether any work on the ship had begun before the start of the Franco-Prussian War in July 1870 beyond collecting building materials. Furthermore, they state that the specific date has not survived in the available records. The ship's name was originally to have been Der Grosse Kurfürst, but it was changed slightly to Grosser Kurfürst during construction.[5]
The ship was launched on 17 September 1875; at the launching ceremony, the Chief of the Imperial Admiralty, General Albrecht von Stosch, christened the ship on behalf of Peter II, Grand Duke of Oldenburg, who had been invited for the ceremony but was ill.[5] Work on the ship was largely completed by December 1877, permitting the beginning of sea trials. She was formally commissioned of 6 May 1878, though she still had shipyard workers aboard. The ship was placed under the command of Kapitän zur See (Captain at Sea) Alexander von Monts.[6] The lengthy construction period was the result of several factors: the delay caused by the Franco-Prussian War, the inexperience of the new imperial shipyard, and the re-design of the ship after work had begun.[5][7]
Collision and loss
In April 1878, the armored squadron was reactivated for the annual summer training cycle, under the command of KonteradmiralCarl Ferdinand Batsch. Stosch ordered Grosser Kurfürst to join the unit, which included her sisters Preussen and Friedrich der Grosse, the large ironclad König Wilhelm, and the avisoFalke after her commissioning on 6 May. She was to join the rest of the unit at 27 May, just three weeks after her crew came aboard the ship and before they were sufficiently familiar with the vessel. Batch recognized that the crew was not ready for major operation, but he instructed Grosser Kurfürst to join him anyway to comply with Stosch's orders. A grounding by Friedrich der Grosse caused serious damage to her hull and prevented her from taking part in the upcoming training cruise. The three ships left Wilhelmshaven on the 29th, bound for the Mediterranean Sea.[5][8]
Shortly after leaving Germany, the squadron parted ways temporarily with Falke due to engine problems aboard the aviso. While crossing the North Sea, Grosser Kurfürst briefly had her rudder stuck, but her crew were able to free it while underway. The ship also had trouble keeping station with the other ironclads, in part due to poor quality coal, but also the inexperience of her boiler room personnel, who had trouble keeping pressure up in the boilers. The ships initially traveled in two columns, the left one led by König Wilhelm, which was followed by Preussen. Grosser Kurfürst steamed to their right by herself. At 02:55 on 31 May, the German ships entered the English Channel and temporarily shifted to a single file formation. The ships soon resumed their original formation, with Grosser Kurfürst steaming 400m (1,300ft) from the other ships. At 07:40, the ships passed the east light ship at Goodwin Sands, and fifty minutes later, entered the Strait of Dover.[9]
SMS Grosser Kurfürst sinking on her maiden voyage
Five minutes after entering the Dover strait, Batsch ordered Grosser Kurfürst to close to within 100m (330ft) as the waterway narrowed. Monts took direct command of the helm to comply with Batsch's command. At 09:00, the ships passed the narrowest point in the straits; they steamed at a speed of 9 knots (17km/h; 10mph). Shortly thereafter, while passing Folkestone, the ships encountered a barque and a brig sailing on a southeast course, some 600m (2,000ft) from the German vessels. In accordance with maritime regulations, König Wilhelm and Preussen turned to starboard to avoid a collision with the merchant vessels. Grosser Kurfürst conformed with the maneuver, but she and König Wilhelm accidentally closed with each other. Monts ordered his ship's engines to full power and turned hard to starboard in an attempt to avoid the flagship, while Batsch ordered König Wilhelm hard to port, but neither vessel was able to turn in time. König Wilhelm found herself pointed directly at Grosser Kurfürst;[10][11] her ram bow tore a large hole in Grosser Kurfürst's side.[12] The collision was so severe that Grosser Kurfürst was pushed back to port and part of her mizzenmast was torn off, among other damage to the upper works of the ship. Most of the ship's boats on the port side were also destroyed.[10]
König Wilhelm disentangled from Grosser Kurfürst and slowly returned to her original course, and the latter attempted to follow the flagship on the port side. Flooding aboard König Wilhelm was quickly brought under control, but the crew aboard Grosser Kurfürst was unable to do so. This was in part due to the fact that the damage hole in her hull was at the location of one of her transverse watertight bulkheads.[10] Worse, Grosser Kurfürst's remaining watertight bulkheads were not adequately sealed, which also contributed to her rapid sinking.[11] As the ship took on more water and the list increased, water began to enter through open portholes as well. Monts had attempted to steer the fatally damaged ship into shallower water, but was unable to cross the approximate 1.5 nautical miles (2.8km; 1.7mi) before she capsized and sank. Shortly before sinking, about fifteen minutes after the collision, Monts ordered the crew to abandon ship.[13]
König Wilhelm slowly approached and lowered all of her boats to pick up the men in the water, while Preussen stopped some 800m (2,600ft) away, her captain having decided to strictly follow regulations. Nearby British fishing boats and other vessels also joined the rescue effort. They picked up some sixty men. Monts was picked up by one of König Wilhelm's boats, but it capsized due to overcrowding; he thereafter helped another man stay afloat until they were picked up by another boat.[14] Figures for the number of fatalities vary. Gröner reports that out of a crew of 500men, 269 died in the accident;[4] Hildebrand, Röhr, and Steinmetz concur with the fatality total, but state that there were only 487men aboard the ship at the time of the sinking.[14] Lawrence Sondhaus states that 276 men were killed,[8] and Aidan Dodson reports 284fatalities.[15] Many of the bodies were ultimately buried in Cheriton Road Cemetery, Folkestone, where there is a substantial memorial. Arthur Sullivan, on his way to Paris, witnessed the incident, writing, "I saw it all– saw the unfortunate vessel slowly go over and disappear under the water in clear, bright sunshine, and the water like a calm lake. It was too horrible– and then we saw all the boats moving about picking up the survivors, some so exhausted they had to be lifted on to the ships."[16]
König Wilhelm was badly damaged in the collision, with severe flooding forward. König Wilhelm's captain initially intended to beach the ship to prevent it from sinking, but determined that the ship's pumps could hold the flooding to an acceptable level. The ship made for Portsmouth, where temporary repairs could be effected to allow the ship to return to Germany.[11] The survivors were carried home to Germany aboard the two ironclads and Falke, which had repaired her engines and arrived in Folkestone by that time.[14] In the aftermath of the collision, the German navy held a court martial for Batsch, the squadron commander, and Captains Monts and Kuehne, the commanders of the two ships, along with Lieutenant Clausa, the first officer aboard Grosser Kurfürst, to investigate the sinking.[17]
Inquiry
Diagram of the maneuvers of the German flotilla
In the ensuing inquiry, chaired by KonteradmiralReinhold von Werner, Monts testified that he had not been given sufficient time to familiarize himself with the ship and its crew, who were themselves unfamiliar with the vessel. Monts argued that the mobilization process for the newly commissioned ship should have lasted four to six weeks, rather than the three he had been given. The day before the squadron left Wilhelmshaven, Batsch complained to Stosch that a significant number of dockyard workers were still finishing work on Grosser Kurfürst. Werner and the board determined that Batsch was at fault and exonerated Monts.[18] Their report was issued on 22 July. Stosch had attempted to interfere in the investigation by blaming Monts to protect Batsch, who was his protege and his preferred successor. Stosch's attempts to manipulate the court martial prompted Kaiser Wilhelm I to issue a reprimand for his conduct.[19][20]
Stosch was infuriated that the proceedings had been allowed to become a forum for criticism of his policies, for which he blamed Werner. He appealed to Kaiser Wilhelm, stating that the inquiry had unfairly blamed Batsch, and requested a new court-martial for the involved officers. Simultaneously, Stosch began a campaign to force Werner out of the navy. This was in part to ensure that Batsch would be next in line after Stosch retired.[21] Despite his popularity, particularly with Kaiser Wilhelm I and his son, Werner was unable to resist Stosch's efforts to force his ouster. On 15 October 1878, he requested retirement.[22]
The second court-martial again found Batsch guilty and Monts innocent of negligence. A third investigation, held in January 1879, reversed the decision of the previous verdicts and convicted Monts and the watch officer aboard König Wilhelm of negligence, and imposing a prison term of one month and two days for Monts, though the Kaiser refused to implement the punishment. This necessitated another trial, held in early June, which returned to the initial verdict and sentenced Batsch to six months in prison. The Kaiser commuted Batsch's sentence after he had served two months in the fortress at Magdeburg. Disappointed that his protégé had taken the blame for the sinking, Stosch requested another court-martial for Monts, who was found not guilty. The Kaiser officially approved the verdict, which put an end to the series of trials over the sinking of Grosser Kurfürst. Batsch submitted his resignation over the incident, but Wilhelm refused to accept it. Instead, he was promoted to vizeadmiral (vice admiral) on 3 February 1880.[19][23]
Aftermath
Illustration of the memorial in Folkestone
The incident provided clear evidence to senior naval leadership that new crews required significantly more time to familiarize themselves with a new ship before they could be pronounced ready for active service. The method for issuing commands to the rudder crews was also changed. Stosch's position both in the naval command structure and politically was weakened. Many navy officers ultimately blamed him for the accident, for having rushed the ship into service. They pointed to his career in the army, frequently citing the argument that "one cannot make a ship ready for service in a few days like a regiment or a brigade."[24] Stosch was known to have been an ally of the liberal-left party of the Reichstag, but his relationship with the party was damaged when the reports on the incident, which he had promised to deliver to parliament, were labeled military secrets.[25]
Another consequence of the sinking was to instill an aversion to naval expenditures in the German Reichstag that persisted for many years. Among the effects of this reluctance to spend on the navy was the refusal to authorize funding for new capital ships for most of the 1880s. In addition, the design for the ironclad Oldenburg, which was to have been a member of the Sachsen class, had to be reduced significantly as a result of the shortage of funds.[26][27]
The lives lost in the sinking of the Grosser Kurfürst are commemorated by a large stone obelisk erected at the Cheriton Road Cemetery in Folkestone,[28] which was erected on 12 January 1881. The sail training shipNiobe had brought it from Germany. Another monument was placed in front of the barracks of I. Seebataillon to memorialize the naval infantry who had died in the sinking.[14]
An initial survey of the wreck by divers in the immediate aftermath of the sinking revealed the hull to be upside down and in good condition apart from the hole torn by König Wilhelm's ram. British authorities doubted the possibility of raising the ship, but the Germans nevertheless sent a team aboard a steamer Boreas and the aviso Loreley to make an initial attempt, which was not successful. A private salvage company offered to raise the wreck to recover her guns and other equipment, but it, too, came to nothing. Engineers at the Kaiserliche Werft in Kiel experimented using compressed carbon dioxide, but their tests did not work.[29] The Germans considered additional projects to salvage the wreck as late as 1903.[15]
↑ "L/22" denotes the length of the gun in terms of caliber. A 22 caliber gun is 22 times as long as it is wide in diameter, so a 26cm L/22 gun is 572cm (225in) long.
SMS Friedrich der Grosse was an ironclad turret ship built for the German Kaiserliche Marine. She was the second of three Preussen-class ironclads, in addition to her two sister-ships Preussen and Grosser Kurfürst. Named for Frederick the Great, she was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel in 1871 and completed in 1877. Her main battery of four 26 cm (10 in) guns was mounted in a pair of twin gun turrets amidships.
SMS Preussen was an ironclad turret ship built for the German Kaiserliche Marine. The ship was built by the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1871–1876; she was commissioned into the fleet in July 1876. She was the first large warship of the German navy built by a private shipyard; all previous vessels had been ordered abroad or built by Royal or Imperial dockyards. Her main battery of four 26 cm (10.2 in) guns was mounted in a pair of twin gun turrets amidships.
SMS Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was one of the first ocean-going battleships of the German Kaiserliche Marine. The ship was named for Prince-elector Friedrich Wilhelm, 17th-century Duke of Prussia and Margrave of Brandenburg. She was the fourth pre-dreadnought of the Brandenburg class, along with her sister ships Brandenburg, Weissenburg, and Wörth. She was laid down in 1890 in the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven, launched in 1891, and completed in 1893. The Brandenburg-class battleships carried six large-caliber guns in three twin turrets, as opposed to four guns in two turrets, as was the standard in other navies.
SMS Oldenburg was an armored warship of the German Kaiserliche Marine. Laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1883, the ship was launched in December 1884 and commissioned into the Navy in April 1886. Oldenburg was intended to have been a fifth member of the Sachsen class of sortie corvettes, but budgetary limitations and dissatisfaction with the Sachsen class prompted a redesign that bore little resemblance to the earlier vessels. Oldenburg mounted her main battery of eight 24 cm (9.4 in) guns amidships, six in a central casemate on the main deck and two directly above them on the broadside. She was the first German capital ship constructed entirely from German-made steel.
SMS Deutschland was the second and final ship of the Kaiser-class ironclads; SMS Kaiser was her sister ship. Named for Germany, the ship was laid down in the Samuda Brothers shipyard in London in 1872. The ship was launched in September 1874 and commissioned into the German fleet in July 1875. Deutschland mounted a main battery of eight 26 cm (10.2 in) guns in a central battery amidships. She was the last capital ship built for the German Navy by a foreign ship-builder; all subsequent ships were built in Germany.
SMS König Wilhelm was an armored frigate of the Prussian and later the German Imperial Navy. The ship was laid down in 1865 at the Thames Ironworks shipyard in London, originally under the name Fatih for the Ottoman Empire. She was purchased by Prussia in February 1867, launched in April 1868, and commissioned into the Prussian Navy in February 1869. The ship was the fifth ironclad ordered by the Prussian Navy, after Arminius, Prinz Adalbert, Friedrich Carl, and Kronprinz. She was built as an armored frigate, armed with a main battery of sixteen 24 cm (9.4 in) and five 21 cm (8.3 in) guns; several smaller guns and torpedo tubes were added later in her career.
SMS Wörth was one of four German pre-dreadnought battleships of the Brandenburg class, built in the early 1890s. The class also included Brandenburg, Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm, and Weissenburg. The ships were the first ocean-going battleships built for the Kaiserliche Marine. Wörth was laid down at the Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel in May 1890. The ship was launched on 6 August 1892 and commissioned into the fleet on 31 October 1893. Wörth and her three sisters carried six heavy guns rather than four, as was standard for most other navies' battleships. She was named for the Battle of Wörth fought during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871.
SMS Brandenburg was the lead ship of the Brandenburg-class pre-dreadnought battleships, which included Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm, Weissenburg, and Wörth, built for the German Kaiserliche Marine in the early 1890s. She was the first pre-dreadnought built for the German Navy; earlier, the navy had only built coastal defense ships and armored frigates. The ship was laid down at the AG Vulcan dockyard in 1890, launched on 21 September 1891, and commissioned into the German Navy on 19 November 1893. Brandenburg and her three sisters were unique for their time in that they carried six heavy guns instead of the four that were standard in other navies. She was named after the Province of Brandenburg.
SMS Kaiser was the lead ship of the Kaiser-class ironclads; SMS Deutschland was her sister ship. Named for the title "Kaiser", held by the leader of the then newly created German Empire, the ship was laid down in the Samuda Brothers shipyard in London in 1871. The ship was launched in March 1874 and commissioned into the German fleet in February 1875. Kaiser mounted a main battery of eight 26 cm (10.2 in) guns in a central battery amidships.
SMS Kronprinz was a unique German ironclad warship built for the Prussian Navy in 1866–1867. Kronprinz was laid down in 1866 at the Samuda Brothers shipyard at Cubitt Town in London. She was launched in May 1867 and commissioned into the Prussian Navy that September. The ship was the fourth ironclad ordered by the Prussian Navy, after Arminius, Prinz Adalbert, and Friedrich Carl, though she entered service before Friedrich Carl. Kronprinz was built as an armored frigate, armed with a main battery of sixteen 21 cm (8.3 in) guns; several smaller guns were added later in her career.
Alexander Graf von Monts de Mazin was an officer in the Prussian Navy and later the German Imperial Navy. He saw action during the Second Schleswig War at the Battle of Jasmund on 17 March 1864 as the commander of the paddle steamer SMS Loreley. He served in a variety of roles through the 1860s and 1870s, including as the commander of the ironclad SMS Grosser Kurfürst, which sank after being rammed accidentally by the ironclad König Wilhelm on the former's maiden voyage in May 1875. Monts was ultimately cleared of wrongdoing in four courts-martial held by the chief of the German Imperial Admiralty, Albrecht von Stosch in an attempt to drive him from the navy. In 1883, Stosch was replaced by Leo von Caprivi, who appointed Monts the chief of the North Sea Naval Station. In 1888, he became the third chief of the Admiralty after Caprivi retired, though Monts remained in the position for just six months before he died.
The Preussen class of armored frigates was a class of three ships built for the German Imperial Navy in the early 1870s. The lead ship, Preussen, was laid down in 1871 and launched in 1873. Friedrich der Grosse also was laid down in 1871 and launched in 1874. Grosser Kurfürst, although the first to be laid down, in 1869, was the last to be completed, launched in 1875. The ships served in the fleet starting in 1876, when Preussen was commissioned.
Reinhold von Werner was a Prussian and later Imperial German naval officer in the 19th century, eventually reaching the rank of vice admiral. He commanded warships during the three wars of German Unification, the Second Schleswig War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War in 1864, 1866, and 1870–1871, respectively, and during a naval intervention during a revolution in Spain in 1873. His actions off Spain, considered extreme by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, resulted in his court-martial. He was promoted two years after the intervention in Spain, but was forced into retirement after a major feud with Albrecht von Stosch three years later. Werner wrote numerous books during and after his naval career, and also founded a periodical on maritime topics. He was ennobled in 1901 and died in February 1909.
SMS Baden was one of four Sachsen-class armored frigates of the German Kaiserliche Marine. Her sister ships were Sachsen, Bayern, and Württemberg. Baden was built in the Kaiserliche Marine in Kiel from 1876 to 1883. The ship was commissioned into the Imperial Navy in September 1883. She was armed with a main battery of six 26 cm (10.2 in) guns in two open barbettes.
SMS Zieten was the first torpedo-armed aviso built for the Imperial German Navy. She was built in Britain in 1875–1876, and was the last major warship built for Germany by a foreign shipyard. Ordered as a testbed for the new Whitehead torpedo, Zieten was armed with a pair of 38 cm (15 in) torpedo tubes, and was capable of a top speed of 16 knots, making her the fastest ship in the German fleet at the time. Zieten was the first torpedo-armed vessel in a series of avisos that ultimately developed into the first light cruisers. In addition to her impact in German warship design, Zieten also influenced numerous other navies, who built dozens of similar avisos and torpedo vessels of their own.
SMS Wacht was an aviso of the Imperial German Navy, the lead ship of her class. She had one sister ship, Jagd. Wacht was built by the AG Weser shipyard; she was laid down in 1886, launched in August 1887, and commissioned in August 1888. She served in the active fleet through the 1890s and participated in numerous training exercises. Her career was cut short on 4 September 1901, when she collided with the old ironclad SMS Sachsen. The latter's ram bow holed Wacht under the waterline and caused her to rapidly sink. Her crew was safely rescued, however, and there were no casualties.
SMS Charlotte was a German screw corvette built for the Kaiserliche Marine in the 1880s, being laid down in April 1883, launched in September 1885, and commissioned in November 1886. The only vessel of her class, Charlotte was the last sailing warship built for the German navy. She was armed with a battery of eighteen 15 cm (5.9 in) guns.
SMS Prinz Adalbert was a steam corvette of the German Kaiserliche Marine, the second and final member of the Leipzig class. She was laid down in 1875 at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin, was launched in June 1876, and was commissioned into the fleet in August 1877. Originally named Sedan after the Battle of Sedan of the Franco-Prussian War, she was renamed Prinz Adalbert to avoid antagonizing France in 1878, less than a decade after the battle.
SMS Falke was an aviso of the North German Federal Navy and later the German Imperial Navy that was built in the mid-1860s. Originally built on speculation as a blockade runner for the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War, she was not sold before the war ended and a shipowner in the Netherlands instead purchased the vessel. The ship's owner renamed the ship Heinrich Heister, though he made no use of her. In 1870, following the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, the North German Navy was in search of vessels to augment its fleet and acquired Heinrich Heister, transferred her to Emden, briefly renaming her Emden to obscure the ship's movements, before being converted into an armed aviso with her intended name, Falke. Her wartime service was cut short by an accidental ramming by the ironclad warship SMS Arminius, sending Falke into dock for repairs.
Gröner, Erich (1990). German Warships: 1815–1945. Vol.I: Major Surface Vessels. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN978-0-87021-790-6.
Hildebrand, Hans H.; Röhr, Albert & Steinmetz, Hans-Otto (1993). Die Deutschen Kriegsschiffe: Biographien – ein Spiegel der Marinegeschichte von 1815 bis zur Gegenwart[The German Warships: Biographies − A Reflection of Naval History from 1815 to the Present] (in German). Vol.4. Ratingen: Mundus Verlag. ISBN978-3-8364-9743-5.
Sondhaus, Lawrence (2001). Naval Warfare, 1815–1914. London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-21478-0.
Sondhaus, Lawrence (1997). Preparing for Weltpolitik: German Sea Power Before the Tirpitz Era. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN978-1-55750-745-7.
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