Setosphaeria rostrata

Last updated

Setosphaeria rostrata
Dpk-meningitis-exserohilum2.jpg
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Phylum:
Ascomycota
Class:
Dothideomycetes
Subclass:
Pleosporomycetidae
Order:
Pleosporales
Family:
Pleosporaceae
Genus:
Setosphaeria
Species:
S. rostrata
Binomial name
Setosphaeria rostrata
K.J. Leonard (1976)

Setosphaeria rostrata is a heat tolerant fungus with an asexual reproductive form (anamorph) known as Exserohilum rostratum. [1] This fungus is a common plant pathogen, causing leaf spots as well as crown rot and root rot in grasses. It is also found in soils and on textiles in subtropical and tropical regions. [2] Exserohilum rostratum is one of the 35 Exserohilum species implicated uncommonly as opportunistic pathogens of humans [3] where it is an etiologic agent of sinusitis, keratitis, skin lesions and an often fatal meningoencephalitis. [4] Infections caused by this species are most often seen in regions with hot climates like Israel, India and the southern USA. [5]

Contents

Growth

Setosphaeria rostrata produce mature conidia with a distinct protruding hilum. [1] The conidia are either straight, curved or bent and the septum above the hilum is thickened and dark. [1] The walls are typically roughened and brown to olive in colour and there are typically 7–9 septa, however, some have 4–14. [1] Exserohilum species typically exhibit rapid growth producing darkly pigmented colonies. [6] Two other closely related species, E. longirostratum, and E. mcginnisii display a high homology with E. rostratum; however these can be differentiated by conidial morphology. [6] Exserohilum ongirostratum is characterized by larger conidia (up to 228 x 12–19 μm), with 6–16 distosepta centrally curved. [6] In contrast, E. mcginnisii has slightly clavate conidia, which are smooth-walled and brown and measure 44–76 x 11–18 μm with 4–8 distosepta lacking darkened bands. [6]

In vitro studies of E. rostratum growth show sporulation to be completely inhibited by light at 34 °C (93 °F) but not at lower temperatures. [7] Optimum sporulation in continuous light occurs 28–31 °C (82–88 °F)in vitro. [7] At these lower temperatures, sporulation shifts from conidiophore induction to conidial formation. [7] At 34 °C (93 °F) under continuous light, only conidiophores are formed. [7] Sporulation of Exserohilum species can be enhanced by growth on cellulose medium for better identification in culture. [8] In samples of naturally infested soil, overlaying plates with filter paper promotes sporulation and enables detection at low population levels. [8]

Ecology

In 1952, a study of the French Sahara and desert zone of Kizil Koum in Turkestan, identified a wide range of micromycetes in the uppermost layers of the soil. [9] Many of the species present were saprophytic flora of dark pigmentation, including Helminthosporium, Curvularia, Alternaria and Stemphylium . [9] Helminthosporium was the genus name of S. rostrata at the time. [9] These fungi were mainly found in the mobile surface layer of the basin, becoming sparser with increasing depth. [9] During dry periods, the Micromycetes in the mobile surface layers of the basin became mobilized by wind which accounted for the relatively uniform distributions of the surface microflora in the surrounding regions. [9] It was discovered that the microfungal population of these superficial desert soils and sands had developed an adaptive morphology to protect them against unfavourable soil conditions. [9] The dark pigmentation of these species is thought to protect them against light and desiccation, it can be seen in both the vegetative and reproductive states. As well, the spores of most of the Dematiaceae were reported as multicellular, septated transversely in the case of Helminthosporium which increases compartmentalization and protection. [9] Another common characteristic of fungi isolated from desert sands is their rapid development and vast reproductive capacity. [9]

Pathophysiology

The genus Exserohilum comprises dematiaceous fungi commonly associated with foliar plant diseases and rarely with human and animal phaeohyphomycosis. [3] [10] [11] Hosts include sugarcane. [11] Fungi of this genus are characterized by the presence of melanin in their cell walls, which is thought to contribute to their virulence. [3] Many Exserohilum species are plant pathogens that affect a wide range of plant species, especially grasses Poaceae, causing distinct leaf spots and blights. [2] However, S. rostrata has also been shown to survive in human as well as animal hosts, indicating pathogenic versatility. [2] [12] Though E. rostratum is a rare cause of infection in people, the species can cause a spectrum of diseases including allergic fungal sinusitis, skin and subcutaneous infections, invasive disease and occasionally keratomycosis an inflammation of the cornea. [13] Invasive and skin infections caused by Exserohilum occur more frequently in those that are immunodeficient or have impaired immunity, these include infections in the sinuses, lungs, lining of the heart, and bone. [14] Whereas, local trauma is a predisposing factor for skin and corneal infections. [5] [14] Meningitis and peripheral arthritides have also been reported pursuant to exposure to contaminated intrathecal drugs. [3]

The virulence factors implicated in E. rostratum pathogenicity are not well established. [3] E. rostratum is a melanized fungus capable of thriving at mammalian temperatures. [15] In other pathogenic fungi, melanin is a well established virulence factor thought to contribute to virulence by protecting the organism against the immune system of the host. [15] Melanin production has also been associated with drug resistance to polyenes and echinocandins but not to azoles, which is why voriconanole is effective at treating fungal infections. [15]

Cutaneous phaeohyphomycosis

There are several known cases of primary cutaneous phaehyphomycosis caused by E. rostratum. In most cases the patients were immunocompromised, several of the affected children had acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). [16] In one case, a three-year-old boy with ALL developed a single painless necrotic lesion on his left forearm, which increased rapidly in size to 5 cm in diameter within 24 hours. [16] This lesion occurred at the skin site on his arm where a gauze-covered wood splint secured the intravenous line the day before. [16] In another case, an 8-year-old boy with ALL developed febrile neutropenia with ecthyma gangrenosum, sinus and pulmonary involvement also due to intravenous contamination. [16] The cases of adults with cutaneous phaeohyphomycosis occurred mainly in immunocompromised patients as well. [16] However, there are a few cases of apparently healthy patients who developed phaeohyphomycosis. [16] One such case involved a 55-year-old woman who developed hemorrhagic vesicles after a jelly-fish sting. Another case was of a 22-year-old man who presented with hemorrhagic bullae. [16]

Corneal infection

In 2012, a case report of keratomycosis in a healthy 46-year-old farmer, found E. rostratum as the cause of corneal infection after an incident of local trauma with vegetable matter. [13] An eye examination revealed a central corneal ulcer about 8 mm with a greyish-white slough, feathery edges and diffuse corneal edema was seen in the right eye. [13]

Meningoencephalitis

In 2012, E. rostratum was responsible for the nationwide outbreak of fungal meningitis in the U.S caused by contaminated corticosteroid injections from the New England Compounding Center (NECC) in Framingham, Massachusetts. [14] As of October 23, 2013, there were 751 total infected individuals with 76 total deaths. Three hundred and twenty-five individuals presented with spinal or paraspinal infections, 233 of whom had meningitis and the balance presented with paraspinal or peripheral joint infections. In this incident, E. rostratum became highly virulent in the host after inoculation of the fungus into the spine. [3] The preservative-free methylprednisolone acetate (MPA) injection caused limited immunological responsiveness at the site of inoculation, thus allowing the fungus to cause a necrotizing fatal disease of the brain. [3] Post-mortem microscopic analysis also revealed that E. rostratum was angioinvasive, eliciting an inflammatory response with neutrophil predominance. [17]

Diagnosis and treatment

At the time of the 2012 outbreak of meningitis in the U.S, very little was known about E. rostratum including methods for diagnosing and treating infected individuals. [18] Only 30% of 372 patient specimens sent to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) showed PCR evidence of the fungal infection. [18] β-D-glucan assays were suggested as a potential method for early detection. [18] The β-D-glucan assay detects (1,3)-β-D-glucan, a major component of many fungal cell walls released during cell growth. [18] In the case of a 44-year-old man, the galactomamman assay successfully facilitated early detection of E. rostratum. [18] However, in a subsequent study the positive results for early detection of E. rostratum were not successfully replicated. [19]

Effective clinical treatments of infections caused by Exserohilum are still very scarce. Recent cases of sinusitis and cutaneous infections report successful results when treated with amphotericin B, itraconazole and/or voriconazole. [6] Although E. rostratum is sensitive to amphotericin B, a common antifungal agent, the severe and potentially lethal side-effects of this drug have limited its use in certain patients, particularly those of older age. [20] [21] A recent drug repurposing screening of antifungal agents suggests the triazoles posaconazole and lanoconazole as useful alternative agents for treating E. rostratum infection. [20] Posaconazole is highly potent and can be taken orally for the prolonged treatment of non-CNS infections like septic joints. [20] It has also been shown to cross the blood-brain barrier and thus has potential as a treatment for CNS infections as well. [20]

Biotechnological uses

Exserohilum rostratum is being incorporated in technologies for controlling Cyperus iria, a common weed in the rice fields of Southeast Asia. [22] A study determined that E. rostratum has the potential to act as a biocontrol agent incorporated with bentazone to control rice field weeds. [22] This species has also been proposed as an antimalarial agent. [23] E. rostratum was found to be a fungal strain endophytic in the plant species Stemona. [23] Monocerin and 11-hydroxymonocerin were isolated from these cultures, which have applications in antimalarial drugs. [23]

Related Research Articles

<i>Sporothrix schenckii</i> Species of fungus

Sporothrix schenckii, a fungus that can be found worldwide in the environment, is named for medical student Benjamin Schenck, who in 1896 was the first to isolate it from a human specimen. The species is present in soil as well as in and on living and decomposing plant material such as peat moss. It can infect humans as well as animals and is the causative agent of sporotrichosis, commonly known as "rose handler's disease." The most common route of infection is the introduction of spores to the body through a cut or puncture wound in the skin. Infection commonly occurs in otherwise healthy individuals but is rarely life-threatening and can be treated with antifungals. In the environment it is found growing as filamentous hyphae. In host tissue it is found as a yeast. The transition between the hyphal and yeast forms is temperature dependent making S. schenckii a thermally dimorphic fungus.

Acremonium strictum is an environmentally widespread saprotroph species found in soil, plant debris, and rotting mushrooms. Isolates have been collected in North and Central America, Asia, Europe and Egypt. A. strictum is an agent of hyalohyphomycosis and has been identified as an increasingly frequent human pathogen in immunosuppressed individuals, causing localized, disseminated and invasive infections. Although extremely rare, A. strictum can infect immunocompetent individuals, as well as neonates. Due to the growing number of infections caused by A. strictum in the past few years, the need for new medical techniques in the identification of the fungus as well as for the treatment of human infections has risen considerably.

<i>Acrophialophora fusispora</i> Species of ascomycete fungus found in soil, air and various plants

Acrophialophora fusispora is a poorly studied ascomycete fungus found in soil, air and various plants. A. fusispora is morphologically similar to the genera Paecilomyces and Masonia, but differ in the presence of pigmented conidiophores, verticillate phialides, and frequent sympodial proliferation. Moreover, A. fusispora is distinguished by its pigmented spindle-shaped conidia, covered with spiral bands. The fungus is naturally found in soils of tropical to temperate regions. The fungus has been identified as a plant and animal pathogen, and has recently been recognized as an emerging opportunistic human pathogen. A. fusispora infection in human is rare and has few documented clinical cases, but due to the rarity of the fungus and potential misidentification, the infections may be underdiagnosed. Clinical cases of A. fusispora include cases of keratitis, pulmonary colonization and infection, and cerebral infections. The fungus also has two documented cases of infection in dogs.

Exophiala jeanselmei is a saprotrophic fungus in the family Herpotrichiellaceae. Four varieties have been discovered: Exophiala jeanselmei var. heteromorpha, E. jeanselmei var. lecanii-corni, E. jeanselmei var. jeanselmei, and E. jeanselmei var. castellanii. Other species in the genus Exophiala such as E. dermatitidis and E. spinifera have been reported to have similar annellidic conidiogenesis and may therefore be difficult to differentiate.

<i>Lomentospora prolificans</i> Species of fungus

Lomentospora prolificans is an emerging opportunistic fungal pathogen that causes a wide variety of infections in immunologically normal and immunosuppressed people and animals. It is resistant to most antifungal drugs and infections are often fatal. Drugs targeting the Class II dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) proteins of L. prolificans, Scedosporium, Aspergillus and other deadly moulds are the basis for at least one new therapy, Olorofim, which is currently in phase 2b clinical trials and has received breakthrough status by FDA. For information on all DHODH proteins, please see Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungal meningitis</span> Meningitis caused by a fungal infection

Fungal meningitis refers to meningitis caused by a fungal infection.

Saksenaea vasiformis is an infectious fungus associated with cutaneous or subcutaneous lesions following trauma. It causes opportunistic infections as the entry of the fungus is through open spaces of cutaneous barrier ranging in severity from mild to severe or fatal. It lives in soils worldwide, but is considered as a rare human pathogen since only 38 cases were reported as of 2012. Saksenaea vasiformis usually fails to sporulate on the routine culture media, creating a challenge for early diagnosis, which is essential for a good prognosis. Infections are usually treated using a combination of amphotericin B and surgery. Saksenaea vasiformis is one of the few fungi known to cause necrotizing fasciitis or "flesh-eating disease".

<i>Ochroconis gallopava</i> Species of fungus

Ochroconis gallopava, also called Dactylaria gallopava or Dactylaria constricta var. gallopava, is a member of genus Dactylaria. Ochroconis gallopava is a thermotolerant, darkly pigmented fungus that causes various infections in fowls, turkeys, poults, and immunocompromised humans first reported in 1986. Since then, the fungus has been increasingly reported as an agent of human disease especially in recipients of solid organ transplants. Ochroconis gallopava infection has a long onset and can involve a variety of body sites. Treatment of infection often involves a combination of antifungal drug therapy and surgical excision.

<i>Cladophialophora bantiana</i> Species of fungus

Cladophialophora bantiana is a melanin producing mold known to cause brain abscesses in humans. It is one of the most common causes of systemic phaeohyphomycosis in mammals. Cladophialophora bantiana is a member of the ascomycota and has been isolated from soil samples from around the world.

Coniochaeta hoffmannii, also known as Lecythophora hoffmannii, is an ascomycete fungus that grows commonly in soil. It has also been categorized as a soft-rot fungus capable of bringing the surface layer of timber into a state of decay, even when safeguarded with preservatives. Additionally, it has pathogenic properties, although it causes serious infection only in rare cases. A plant pathogen lacking a known sexual state, C. hoffmannii has been classified as a "dematiaceous fungus" despite its contradictory lack of pigmentation; both in vivo and in vitro, there is no correlation between its appearance and its classification.

Phaeohyphomycosis is a diverse group of fungal infections, caused by dematiaceous fungi whose morphologic characteristics in tissue include hyphae, yeast-like cells, or a combination of these. It can be associated an array of melanistic filamentous fungi including Alternaria species,Exophiala jeanselmei, and Rhinocladiella mackenziei.

<i>Aspergillus ustus</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus ustus is a microfungus and member of the division Ascomycota. It is commonly found in indoor environments and soil. Isolated cases of human infection resulting from A. ustus have been described; however the majority of these are nail infections.

Scedosporiosis is the general name for any mycosis - i.e., fungal infection - caused by a fungus from the genus Scedosporium. Current population-based studies suggest Scedosporium prolificans and Scedosporium apiospermum to be among the most common infecting agents from the genus, although infections caused by other members thereof are not unheard of. The latter is an asexual form (anamorph) of another fungus, Pseudallescheria boydii. The former is a “black yeast”, currently not characterized as well, although both of them have been described as saprophytes.

<i>Exserohilum</i> Genus of fungi

Exserohilum is a genus of fungi in the family Pleosporaceae. The Exserohilum species are known for causing blight and human immune system diseases. The sexual reproductive states of Exserohilum species are known as Setosphaeria. The type species is Exserohilum turcicum. This genus is among three dematiaceous that are categorized for containing pathogens leading to diseases like phaeohyphomycosis.

Chaetomium atrobrunneum is a darkly pigmented mould affiliated with the fungal division, Ascomycota. This species is predominantly saprotrophic, although it has been known to infect animals including humans, showing a proclivity for the tissues of the central nervous system. Chaetomium atrobrunneum was described in 1949 from a mouldy military mattress cover obtained from the island of Guadalcanal.

<i>Rhinocladiella mackenziei</i> Species of fungus

Rhinocladiella mackenziei is a deeply pigmented mold that is a common cause of human cerebral phaeohyphomycosis. Rhinocladiella mackenziei was believed to be endemic solely to the Middle East, due to the first cases of infection being limited to the region. However, cases of R. mackenziei infection are increasingly reported from regions outside the Middle East. This pathogen is unique in that the majority of cases have been reported from immunologically normal people.

<i>Cladophialophora carrionii</i> Species of fungus

Cladophialophora carrionii is a melanized fungus in the genus Cladophialophora that is associated with decaying plant material like cacti and wood. It is one of the most frequent species of Cladophialophora implicated in human disease. Cladophialophora carrionii is a causative agent of chromoblastomycosis, a subcutaneous infection that occurs in sub-tropical areas such as Madagascar, Australia and northwestern Venezuela. Transmission occurs through traumatic implantation of plant material colonized by C. carrionii, mainly infecting rural workers. When C. carrionii infects its host, it transforms from a mycelial state to a muriform state to better tolerate the extreme conditions in the host's body.

<i>Phialophora verrucosa</i> Species of fungus

Phialophora verrucosa is a pathogenic, dematiaceous fungus that is a common cause of chromoblastomycosis. It has also been reported to cause subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis and mycetoma in very rare cases. In the natural environment, it can be found in rotting wood, soil, wasp nests, and plant debris. P. verrucosa is sometimes referred to as Phialophora americana, a closely related environmental species which, along with P. verrucosa, is also categorized in the P. carrionii clade.

Cladophialophora arxii is a black yeast shaped dematiaceous fungus that is able to cause serious phaeohyphomycotic infections. C. arxii was first discovered in 1995 in Germany from a 22-year-old female patient suffering multiple granulomatous tracheal tumours. It is a clinical strain that is typically found in humans and is also capable of acting as an opportunistic fungus of other vertebrates Human cases caused by C. arxii have been reported from all parts of the world such as Germany and Australia.

Chaetomium perlucidum is a neurotropic dematiaceous fungus that is naturally found in the soil, including in agricultural soil, and in the stems of dead plants. The fungus can also be found on the feathers of birds, manure, seeds, and even paper. It is able to thrive at temperatures of 35 and 42 °C.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 McGinnis, Michael; Rinaldi, Michael; Winn, Richard (August 1986). "Emerging Agents of Phaeohyphomycosis: Pathogenic Species of Bipolaris and Exserohilum". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 24 (2): 250–259. doi:10.1128/jcm.24.2.250-259.1986. PMC   268884 . PMID   3745423.
  2. 1 2 3 Sharma, Kalpana; Goss, Erica M.; Dickstein, Ellen R.; Smith, Matthew E.; Johnson, Judith A.; Southwick, Frederick S.; van Bruggen, Ariena H. C.; Bereswill, Stefan (6 October 2014). "Exserohilum rostratum: Characterization of a Cross-Kingdom Pathogen of Plants and Humans". PLOS ONE. 9 (10): e108691. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j8691S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0108691 . PMC   4186819 . PMID   25285444.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ergonul, Önder; Fusun, Can; Murat, Akova; Madoff, Lawrence (2014). Emerging Infectious Diseases Clinical Case Studies. London: Academic. pp. 296–300. ISBN   9780124201095.
  4. ↑ Revankar, Sanjay G.; Sutton, Deanna A. (7 October 2010). "Melanized Fungi in Human Disease". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 23 (4): 884–928. doi:10.1128/CMR.00019-10. PMC   2952981 . PMID   20930077.
  5. 1 2 Adler, A.; Yaniv, I.; Samra, Z.; Yacobovich, J.; Fisher, S.; Avrahami, G.; Levy, I. (2 March 2006). "Exserohilum: an emerging human pathogen". European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 25 (4): 247–253. doi:10.1007/s10096-006-0093-3. PMID   16511679. S2CID   11489934.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 da Cunha, K. C.; Sutton, D. A.; Gene, J.; Capilla, J.; Cano, J.; Guarro, J. (25 June 2012). "Molecular Identification and In Vitro Response to Antifungal Drugs of Clinical Isolates of Exserohilum". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 56 (9): 4951–4954. doi:10.1128/AAC.00488-12. PMC   3421891 . PMID   22733074.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Honda, Yuichi; Aragaki, Minoru (May 1978). "Photosporogenesis in Exserohilum rostratum: Influence of Temperature and Age of Conidiophores in the Terminal Phase". Mycologia. 70 (3): 538. doi:10.2307/3759391. JSTOR   3759391.
  8. 1 2 Pratt, Robert G. (August 2006). "Enhancement of sporulation in species of Bipolaris, Curvularia, Drechslera, and Exserohilum by growth on cellulose-containing substrates". Mycopathologia. 162 (2): 133–140. doi:10.1007/S11046-006-0043-8. PMID   16897592. S2CID   11917135.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Nicot, Jean (1958). The Ecology of Soil Fungi: "Some Characteristics of The Microflora in Desert Sands". Liverpool University Press. pp. 94–97.
  10. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-11-29. Retrieved 2014-11-18.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  11. 1 2 Mehnaz, Samina (2013). "Microbes – friends and foes of sugarcane". Journal of Basic Microbiology . WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH. 53 (12): 954–971. doi:10.1002/jobm.201200299. eISSN   1521-4028. ISSN   0233-111X. PMID   23322584. S2CID   5491974.
  12. ↑ Ajello, L.; Iger, M.; Wybel, R.; Vigil, F. J. (November 1980). "Drechslera rostrata as an Agent of Phaeohyphomycosis". Mycologia. 72 (6): 1094. doi:10.2307/3759562. JSTOR   3759562.
  13. 1 2 3 NM, Joseph; Ma, Stephen; S, Kumar (2012). "Keratomycosis caused by Exserohilium rostratum". Indian JournalofPathologyandMicrobiology. 55: 248–9.
  14. 1 2 3 "Multistate Outbreak of Fungal Meningitis and Other Infections | HAI | CDC". 23 April 2019.
  15. 1 2 3 Andes, David; Casadevall, Arturo (December 2013). "Insights into fungal pathogenesis from the iatrogenic epidemic of Exserohilum rostratum fungal meningitis". Fungal Genetics and Biology. 61: 143–145. doi:10.1016/j.fgb.2013.08.014. PMID   24012946.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Saint-Jean, Maud; St-Germain, Guy; Laferrière, Celine; Tapiero, Bruce (May 2007). "Hospital- acquired phaeohyphomycosis due to Exserohilum rostratum in a child with leukemia". Med Microbiology. 18 (3): 200–202. doi: 10.1155/2007/384743 . PMC   2533549 . PMID   18923719.
  17. ↑ Andes, David; Casadevall, Arturo (2013). "Insights into fungal pathogenesis from the iatrogenic epidemic of Exserohilum rostratum fungal meningitis". Fungal Genetics and Biology. 61: 143–145. doi:10.1016/j.fgb.2013.08.014. PMID   24012946.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 Korem, M.; Polacheck, I.; Michael-Gayego, A.; Strahilevitz, J. (29 May 2013). "Galactomannan Testing for Early Diagnosis of Exserohilum rostratum Infection". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 51 (8): 2800–2801. doi:10.1128/JCM.00955-13. PMC   3719622 . PMID   23720789.
  19. ↑ Suwantarat, N.; Lee, R.; Carroll, K. C.; Zhang, S. X. (26 June 2014). "Questionable Utility of Galactomannan Testing for Diagnosis of Exserohilum rostratum Infection". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 52 (7): 2742–2743. doi:10.1128/JCM.01148-14. PMC   4097679 . PMID   24970643.
  20. 1 2 3 4 Sun, Wei; Park, Yoon-Dong; Sugui, Janyce A.; Fothergill, Annette; Southall, Noel; Shinn, Paul; McKew, John C.; Kwon-Chung, Kyung J.; Zheng, Wei; Williamson, Peter R.; Wang, Ping (21 August 2013). "Rapid Identification of Antifungal Compounds against Exserohilum rostratum Using High Throughput Drug Repurposing Screens". PLOS ONE. 8 (8): e70506. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...870506S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0070506 . PMC   3749181 . PMID   23990907.
  21. ↑ Revankar, S. G.; Moudgal, V.; Chandrasekar, P.; Sobel, J. D. (24 March 2014). "In Vitro Studies of Exserohilum rostratum with Antifungal Drugs and Methylprednisolone". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 58 (6): 3564–3565. doi:10.1128/AAC.02357-13. PMC   4068475 . PMID   24663018.
  22. 1 2 Kundat (1 February 2010). "Incorporation of Bentazone with Exserohilum rostratum for Controlling Cyperus iria". American Journal of Agricultural and Biological Sciences. 5 (2): 210–214. doi: 10.3844/ajabssp.2010.210.214 .
  23. 1 2 3 Sappapan, Ruengrit; Sommit, Damrong; Ngamrojanavanich, Nattaya; Pengpreecha, Somchai; Wiyakrutta, Suthep; Sriubolmas, Nongluksna; Pudhom, Khanitha (September 2008). "11-Hydroxymonocerin from the Plant Endophytic Fungus". Journal of Natural Products. 71 (9): 1657–1659. doi:10.1021/np8004024. PMID   18774863.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.