Sloane's viperfish

Last updated

Sloane's viperfish
Temporal range: Pleistocene to recent [1]
Chauliodus sloani Gervais.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Stomiiformes
Family: Stomiidae
Genus: Chauliodus
Species:
C. sloani
Binomial name
Chauliodus sloani

Sloane's viperfish, Chauliodus sloani, is a predatory mesopelagic dragonfish found in waters across the world. [3] The species was first described by German scientists Marcus Elieser Bloch and Johann Gottlob Schneider in their 1801 book Systema ichthyologiae: iconibus CX illustratum, volume 1. [4] Female C. sloani reach maturity between 133 and 191 mm, while males likely reach maturity at slightly smaller body lengths. [5] It has two rows of photophores along its ventral side. [6] It is believed that C. sloani can adjust the intensity of bioluminescence of the ventral photophores to camouflage itself from predators that might see its shadow from below. [7]

Contents

Taxonomy

C. sloani is part of the genus Chauliodus, which includes all viperfishes. Viperfishes are deep-sea fishes with photophores (light-producing organs), long teeth, and hinged jaws. [6] There are nine other species in the genus, including C. danae and C. pammelas, both of which appear alongside C. sloani in primary literature. [8] [9] C. sloani is distinguished from other Chauliodus species by its circumglobal range.

Distribution

C. sloani is found in tropical and temperate waters. It is widespread in the Atlantic Ocean and the western Mediterranean Sea, as well as the Indian and Pacific Oceans. [6] Temperature restricts Sloane’s Viperfish vertical distribution. [10]

In the Atlantic, its latitudinal range is from 35°N - 55°N, with highest abundance around 45°N. [8] In the Arabian Sea, its range is primarily south of 10°N. [9]

In the central Mediterranean Sea, C. sloani is eaten as a primary part of the diet of the Atlantic bluefin tuna. [11] Analysis of several cetaceans' stomach contents found remnants of C. sloani, including the pygmy sperm whale and Gervais's beaked whale. Both were found beached on the Canary Islands. [12]


Anatomy

Messina Straits Chauliodus sloani.jpg

Jaw anatomy

The primary feature of interest in C. sloani is its enormous teeth. When the jaw is closed, the teeth fit together to form a cage in which prey can likely be trapped. [13] Its jaw can be unhinged, allowing it to open its mouth up to 90° to catch prey up to 63% its own body size. [13] Its teeth, however, are fixed in place, attached firmly to the jawbone rather than being depressible like in some other fish species. [13] The immobility of its huge teeth requires it to open its jaw so wide.

The size, shape, location, and number of teeth are consistent across individuals of C. sloani, and each fang is highly specialized. [13] C. sloani likely lures prey to its mouth with its photophore, or by arching its long dorsal ray to dangle in front of its mouth. [13] The foremost premaxillary tooth, which is relatively straight and has sharp ridges, may then be used to wound larger prey. [13] The curved second premaxillary tooth is thought to be used like a dagger, retaining larger prey.5 All teeth come together into a cage to retain smaller prey. [13]

A study in 2009 showed that the teeth of C. sloani have dentin tubules [13] while another study, a decade later, showed the teeth of Aristostomias scintillans , another member of the family Stomiidae, lack dentin tubules. [14] The reason behind difference in presence of dentin tubules in two species of the same family has yet to be addressed.

The jaw musculature of C. sloani contains a third adductor facialis muscle ventral to the skull. Recent research suggests that it improves the mechanical advantage of the system by anteriorly displacing the intersegmental aponeurosis during adduction, which increases bite force and angular velocity. [15]

General anatomy

C. sloani has a forked caudal fin, an adipose fin, and a dorsal fin located immediately behind its head. Almost all of its fins contain soft rays. C. sloani has a low lipid content (~2.4%). [16] The body is enveloped in a thick, transparent, gelatinous casing. Like many stomiiformes, its scales and caudal skeleton are poorly ossified and it lacks a gas-filled swim bladder. [17]

Diet

C. sloani is a major consumer of myctophids (lanternfishes), other bony fishes, and crustaceans. [9] [18] An average C. sloani individual probably consumes at least one lanternfish every twelve days [9] and there is no evidence to suggest that they increase their intake of food the bigger they are. [19] Consequently, the stomachs of smaller individuals have been found containing proportionally larger prey than the prey found in the stomachs of larger individuals. [20] However, they are not picky in their diet — they also eat other fishes, eggs, and algae. [8] This is another thing that distinguishes them from the C. danae, which feeds mainly on crustaceans, [8] however there has been evidence that shows smaller variations had crustaceans included in the stomach during stomach content analysis. [21] C. sloani typically feed on large prey, and in some cases was documented to consume prey up to 50% of its own bodyweight, and the size of their prey allows them to feed rarely and opportunistically while maximizing energetic efficiency. [21] This is consistent with the observation that only individuals under 120 mm in length were found with crustaceans in their stomach contents. [20] The fish is considered a specialist predator given the small list of prey that were observed in the stomach content analysis. [21] Some examples of nektonic prey include Cyclothone , Bregmaceros , Diaphus , Lampanyctus , and Myctophum . [22] In a study to determine the effect of seasonal changes on feeding behavior, no significant difference was determined for C. sloani, and all of the prey items observed were fishes. [19] Earlier research found that of the 28 fish species preyed on, 18 were myctophids. [20] There was no observation of a diurnal feeding pattern, meaning their feeding was not affected by time of day. [19]

Bioluminescence

The photophores on the ventral and lateral sides of the viperfish allow it to display bioluminescence. [6] In a recent study, it was determined that the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline both contribute to bioluminescence in the viperfish, with adrenaline levels being higher in the photophores. [23] The study also observed that when the tail of the viperfish was squeezed, the viperfish emitted light for about 5–10 seconds. [23]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deep-sea fish</span> Fauna found in deep-sea areas

Deep-sea fish are fish that live in the darkness below the sunlit surface waters, that is below the epipelagic or photic zone of the sea. The lanternfish is, by far, the most common deep-sea fish. Other deep-sea fishes include the flashlight fish, cookiecutter shark, bristlemouths, anglerfish, viperfish, and some species of eelpout.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stomiiformes</span> Order of fishes

Stomiiformes is an order of deep-sea ray-finned fishes of very diverse morphology. It includes, for example, dragonfishes, lightfishes, loosejaws, marine hatchetfishes and viperfishes. The order contains 4 families with more than 50 genera and at least 410 species. As usual for deep-sea fishes, there are few common names for species of the order, but the Stomiiformes as a whole are often called dragonfishes and allies or simply stomiiforms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gonostomatidae</span> Family of fishes

The Gonostomatidae are a family of mesopelagic marine fish, commonly named bristlemouths, lightfishes, or anglemouths. It is a relatively small family, containing only eight known genera and 32 species. However, bristlemouths make up for their lack of diversity with relative abundance, numbering in the hundreds of trillions to quadrillions. The genus Cyclothone is thought to be one of the most abundant vertebrate genera in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pacific viperfish</span> Species of fish

The Pacific viperfish, Chauliodus macouni, is a predatory deep-sea fish found in the North Pacific. It is reported as being either mesopelagic or bathypelagic, with diel vertical migration to shallower waters. The Pacific viperfish is one of the nine different species that belong to the genus Chauliodus, the viperfish. The Pacific viperfish tend to be the largest of the species, typically reaching lengths of up to 1 foot and are considered an example of deep-sea gigantism. The length-weight relationship of the pacific viperfish varies with sex with females tending to be longer and heavier than males.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pelagic fish</span> Fish in the pelagic zone of ocean waters

Pelagic fish live in the pelagic zone of ocean or lake waters—being neither close to the bottom nor near the shore—in contrast with demersal fish that live on or near the bottom, and reef fish that are associated with coral reefs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viperfish</span> Genus of fishes

A viperfish is any species of marine fish in the genus Chauliodus. Viperfishes are mostly found in the mesopelagic zone and are characterized by long, needle-like teeth and hinged lower jaws. A typical viperfish grows to lengths of 30 cm (12 in). Viperfishes undergo diel vertical migration and are found all around the world in tropical and temperate oceans. Viperfishes are capable of bioluminescence and possess photophores along the ventral side of their body, likely used to camouflage them by blending in with the less than 1% of light that reaches to below 200 meters depth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stomiidae</span> Family of fishes

Stomiidae is a family of deep-sea ray-finned fish, including the barbeled dragonfishes. They are quite small, usually around 15 cm, up to 26 cm. These fish are apex predators and have enormous jaws filled with fang-like teeth. They are also able to hinge the neurocranium and upper-jaw system, which leads to the opening of the jaw to more than 100 degrees. This ability allows them to consume extremely large prey, often 50% greater than their standard length.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stoplight loosejaw</span> Genus of fishes

The stoplight loosejaws are small, deep-sea dragonfishes of the genus Malacosteus, classified either within the subfamily Malacosteinae of the family Stomiidae, or in the separate family Malacosteidae. They are found worldwide, outside of the Arctic and Subantarctic, in the mesopelagic zone below a depth of 500 meters. This genus once contained three nominal species: M. niger, M. choristodactylus, and M. danae, with the validity of the latter two species being challenged by different authors at various times. In 2007, Kenaley examined over 450 stoplight loosejaw specimens and revised the genus to contain two species, M. niger and the new M. australis.

<i>Malacosteus niger</i> Species of fish

Malacosteus niger, commonly known as the black dragon fish, is a species of deep-sea fish. Some additional common names for this species include: northern stoplight loosejaw, lightless loosejaw, black loosejaw, and black hinged-head. It belongs to the family Stomiidae, or dragonfishes. It is among the top predators of the open mesopelagic zone. M. niger is a circumglobal species, which means that it inhabits waters ranging from the tropics to the subarctics. Not many studies have been conducted on its feeding habits, but recent research suggests that M. niger primarily feed on calanoid copepods which is a form of zooplankton. Indeed, it appears that M. niger primarily prey on zooplankton despite its apparent morphological adaptations for the consumption of relatively large prey. Another unique adaptation for this species is its ability to produce both red and blue bioluminescence. Most mesopelagic species aren't capable of producing red bioluminescence. This is advantageous because most other species cannot perceive red light, therefore allowing M. niger to camouflage part of itself to its prey and predators.

Stomias boa boa, also called the scaly dragonfish or boa dragonfish, is a subspecies of abyssal barbeled dragonfish of the family Stomiidae. It is found at great depths worldwide in tropical to temperate oceans but is absent from the northern Pacific and northwest Atlantic Oceans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackbelly lanternshark</span> Species of shark

The blackbelly lanternshark or lucifer shark is a shark of the family Etmopteridae found around the world in tropical and temperate seas at depths between 150 and 1,250 meters – the mesopelagic zone. Compared to other mesopelagic fish predators and invertebrates, the blackbelly lanternshark is thought to reside in shallower, more southern waters. E. lucifer can reach up to 47 centimeters in length and consumes mesopelagic cephalopods, fish, and crustaceans. Blackbelly lanternsharks are bioluminescent, using hormone controlled mechanisms to emit light through ventral photogenic organs called photophores and are presumed to be ovoviviparous. The blackbelly lanternshark has been classified as "Not Threatened" within the New Zealand Threat Classification System.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Velvet belly lanternshark</span> Species of shark

The velvet belly lanternshark is a species of dogfish shark in the family Etmopteridae. One of the most common deepwater sharks in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, the velvet belly is found from Iceland and Norway to Gabon and South Africa at a depth of 20–2,490 m (66–8,169 ft). A small shark generally no more than 45 cm (18 in) long, the velvet belly is so named because its black underside is abruptly distinct from the brown coloration on the rest of its body. The body of this species is fairly stout, with a moderately long snout and tail, and very small gill slits. Like other lanternsharks, the velvet belly is bioluminescent, with light-emitting photophores forming a species-specific pattern over its flanks and abdomen. The ventral photophores are thought to function in counter-illumination, which camouflages the shark against predators and prey. The bioluminescent flank markings may play a role in intraspecific communication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fringefin lanternshark</span> Species of shark

The fringefin lanternshark is a shark of the family Etmopteridae found in the western central Atlantic from Texas to Florida, northern Gulf of Mexico, and Mexico. It is endemic to this area. It is a deep water shark and is found about 220 to 915 meters below the surface, on the upper continental slopes of the Gulf. E. schultzi is a small shark, about 27–30 cm long and feeds on squid. It is also bioluminescent, which counter-illuminates it and helps with intraspecific interaction. Due to its limited range and the difficulty of collecting deep water species, it has not been evaluated by the IUCN Red List, but due to recent oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico, it is likely that fringefin lanternsharks have decreased in population.

Astronesthes richardsoni, or Richardson's snaggletooth, is a species of small, deep sea fish in the family Stomiidae. It occurs in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. First described by the Cuban zoologist Felipe Poey in 1852, it was named Chauliodus richardsoni in honour of the Scottish explorer and naturalist John Richardson. It was later transferred to the genus Astronesthes.

<i>Astronesthes niger</i> Species of fish

Astronesthes niger, commonly known as snaggletooth, is a species of small, deep sea fish in the family Stomiidae. It occurs in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, as well as the Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean, at depths to 1,000 m (3,300 ft).

<i>Ornithoteuthis antillarum</i> Species of squid

Ornithoteuthis antillarum, the Atlantic bird squid, is a species of flying squid from the family Ommastrephidae which is found in the warmer waters of the Atlantic Ocean. This species is an important component of the diet of many species of fish and of cetaceans. It is taken as a bycatch in fisheries but has the potential to be commercially important if appropriate fishing methods can be developed.

<i>Neoscopelus macrolepidotus</i> Species of fish

Neoscopelus macrolepidotus, also known as a large-scaled lantern fish, is a species of small mesopelagic or bathypelagic fish of the family Neoscopelidae, which contains six species total along three genera. The family Neoscopelidae is one of the two families of the order Myctophiformes. Neoscopelidae can be classified by the presence of an adipose fin. The presence of photophores, or light-producing organs, further classify the species into the genus Neoscopelus. N. macrolepidotus tends to be mesopelagic until the individuals become large adults, which is when they settle down to the bathypelagic zone.

Stomias affinis, also known as Gunther's boafish, is a deep-sea mesopelagic fish species in the family Stomiidae. They inhabit the open seas in the equatorial zones of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.

<i>Argyropelecus olfersii</i> Species of fish

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A micronekton is a group of organisms of 2 to 20 cm in size which are able to swim independently of ocean currents. The word 'nekton' is derived from the Greek νήκτον, translit. nekton, meaning "to swim", and was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1890.

References

  1. ↑ "Fossilworks: Chauliodus sloani".
  2. ↑ "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". Iucnredlist.org. 2013-10-16. Retrieved 2021-11-19.
  3. ↑ Eytan, Ron; Paulus, E.; Weber, M.; and Sutton, Tracey, "DEEPEND: Once Bitten, Twice Shy: A Cryptic Species of Sloane's Viperfish (Chauliodus sloani) Discovered in the Mesopelagic Waters of the Gulf of Mexico" (2017). Oceanography Faculty Proceedings, Presentations, Speeches, Lectures. 452.
  4. ↑ Bloch, M. E., & Schneider, J. G. (1801). Systema ichthyologiae: iconibus CX illustratum (Vol. 1). Auctor.
  5. ↑ Marks, Alex D.; Kerstetter, David W.; Wyanski, David M.; Sutton, Tracey T. (2020). "Reproductive Ecology of Dragonfishes (Stomiiformes: Stomiidae) in the Gulf of Mexico". Frontiers in Marine Science. 7. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00101 .
  6. 1 2 3 4 Whitehead, P. J. P., Bauchot, M. L., Hureau, J. C., Nielsen, J., & Tortonese, E. (1984). Fishes of the north-eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean, volume 1. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization.
  7. ↑ Denton, Eric James; Gilpin-Brown, J. B.; Wright, P. G. (1972-09-19). "The angular distribution of the light produced by some mesopelagic fish in relation to their camouflage". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences. 182 (1067): 145–158. Bibcode:1972RSPSB.182..145D. doi:10.1098/rspb.1972.0071. S2CID   128647648.
  8. 1 2 3 4 van Utrecht, W. V. U. C. (1987). Growth and seasonal variations in distribution of Chaulidous sloani and C. danae (Pisces) from the mid North Atlantic. Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde, 57(2), 164-182.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Butler, M., Bollens, S. M., Burkhalter, B., Madin, L. P., & Horgan, E. (2001). Mesopelagic fishes of the Arabian Sea: distribution, abundance and diet of Chauliodus pammelas, Chauliodus sloani, Stomias affinis, and Stomias nebulosus. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 48(6-7), 1369-1383.
  10. ↑ Eduardo, L. N., Lucena-Frédou, F., Mincarone, M. M., Soares, A., Le Loc’h, F., Frédou, T., Ménard, F., & Bertrand, A. (2020). Trophic ecology, habitat, and migratory behaviour of the viperfish Chauliodus sloani reveal a key mesopelagic player. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 20996–20996. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-77222-8
  11. ↑ Battaglia, P., Andaloro, F., Consoli, P., Esposito, V., Malara, D., Musolino, S., ... & Romeo, T. (2013). Feeding habits of the Atlantic bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus (L. 1758), in the central Mediterranean Sea (Strait of Messina). Helgoland marine research, 67(1), 97.
  12. ↑ Fernández, R.; Santos, M.B.; Carrillo, M.; Tejedor, M.; Pierce, G.J. (2009-04-20). "Stomach contents of cetaceans stranded in the Canary Islands 1996–2006". Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 89 (5): 873–883. doi:10.1017/s0025315409000290. ISSN   0025-3154. S2CID   56292379.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Greven, H., Walker, Y., & Zanger, K. (2009). On the structure of teeth in the viperfish Chauliodus sloani Bloch & Schneider, 1801 (Stomiidae). Bulletin of Fish Biology Volume, 11(1/2), 87-98.
  14. ↑ Velasco-Hogan, Audrey; Deheyn, Dimitri; Koch, Marcus; et al. (2019). "On the Nature of the Transparent Teeth of the Deep-Sea Dragonfish, Aristostomias scintillans". Matter. 11: 235-249. Doi: 10.1016/j.matt.2019.05.010
  15. ↑ Kenaley, Christopher P.; Marecki, Mikhaila C.; Lauder, George V. (2019-08-01). "The role of an overlooked adductor muscle in the feeding mechanism of ray-finned fishes: Predictions from simulations of a deep-sea viperfish". Zoology. 135: 125678. doi: 10.1016/j.zool.2019.02.005 . ISSN   0944-2006. PMID   31383297. S2CID   146090969.
  16. ↑ Swanson, Daniel. "Chauliodus sloani (Manylight viperfish)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  17. ↑ Denton, E. J.; Marshall, N. B. (1958). "The buoyancy of bathypelagic fishes without a gas-filled swimbladder" (PDF). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 37 (3): 753–767. doi:10.1017/S0025315400005750. ISSN   1469-7769.
  18. ↑ Swanson, Daniel. "Chauliodus sloani (Manylight viperfish)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2024-06-16.
  19. 1 2 3 A., Williams; J., Koslow; A., Terauds; K., Haskard (2001-12-01). "Feeding ecology of five fishes from the mid-slope micronekton community off southern Tasmania, Australia". Marine Biology. 139 (6): 1177–1192. doi:10.1007/s002270100671. ISSN   0025-3162. S2CID   85224696.
  20. 1 2 3 Gibbs, R (1984). "Chauliodontidae". Fishes of the North-eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. 1: 336–337 – via UNESCO.
  21. 1 2 3 Battaglia, P.; Ammendolia, G.; Esposito, V.; Romeo, T.; Andaloro, F. (2018-01-01). "Few But Relatively Large Prey: Trophic Ecology of Chauliodus sloani (Pisces: Stomiidae) in Deep Waters of the Central Mediterranean Sea". Journal of Ichthyology. 58 (1): 8–16. doi:10.1134/S0032945218010034. ISSN   1555-6425. S2CID   3804319.
  22. ↑ Swanson, Daniel. "Chauliodus sloani (Manylight viperfish)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2024-06-16.
  23. 1 2 Mallefet, Jérôme; Duchatelet, Laurent; Hermans, Claire; Baguet, Fernand (January 2019). "Luminescence control of Stomiidae photophores". Acta Histochemica. 121 (1): 7–15. doi:10.1016/j.acthis.2018.10.001. PMID   30322809. S2CID   53505749.
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