Typography, as an aspect of cartographic design, is the craft of designing and placing text on a map in support of the map symbols, together representing geographic features and their properties. It is also often called map labeling or lettering, but typography is more in line with the general usage of typography. Throughout the history of maps to the present, their labeling has been dependent on the general techniques and technologies of typography.
For most of the history of Cartography, the text on maps was hand drawn, and Calligraphy was an essential part of the skill set of the cartographer. This did not change with the advent of printing in the 15th Century, because the dispersed placement of the text did not lend itself to the use of Movable type. Instead, printed maps, including text, were drawn, engraved, and printed using the Intaglio or "copperplate" process. It was typical for the cartographer to not label the map himself, but to leave it to the master engraver. Text styles frequently changed with the tastes of the time, but were often very ornate, especially in non-map elements such as the title. [1]
The development of Photoengraving, Zincography, and wax engraving in the mid-19th Century significantly changed the production of maps and their labels, enabling the addition of printed type to maps using stamps, but map lettering still required a great deal of skill; this remained the state of the art until the development of Photolithography in the 1950s. [2] The photographic platemaking process meant that type could be produced on paper in a variety of ways, producing map labels of the same quality as book text. That said, as late as 1960, Arthur H. Robinson still advised new cartographers to be skilled in freehand lettering, and mechanical lettering tools were still in common usage through the 1980s, encouraging a very simplistic functional style over any aesthetic character. [1]
A significant turning point was "Die Anordnung der Namen in der Karte", a 1962 essay (re-published in English in 1975) by Swiss cartographer Eduard Imhof, considered the greatest European cartographer of his day. [3] Imhof analyzed the best maps he could find, such as the Swisstopo topographic maps, deriving a set of general principles and guidelines for type design and placement, which subsequent research has largely corroborated and further developed, and which forms the core canon on the topic found in modern cartography textbooks. In 1972, Pinhas Yoeli began to codify Imhof's guidelines mathematically, setting the stage for Automatic label placement. [4] In 2000, Clifford Wood extended Imhof's guidelines, based on the intervening 25 years of research and practice. [5]
The rise of Desktop publishing around 1990, including graphics software, laser printers, and inkjet printers, combined with the improving design capabilities of Geographic information systems, greatly increased and facilitated the more thoughtful design and use of type on maps. A wealth of typefaces became available, and it became easy to place text anywhere on the map. This completed the shift of skill in map typography from construction to design. [6]
Text simultaneously serves several purposes on maps. In 1993, D. J. Fairbairn introduced a taxonomy of the purposes of text on maps, identifying fourteen types of text role. [7] Since then, others, such as cartography textbooks, have described the variety of roles of text, with the following generally being the most common:
In 1929, Ordnance Survey cartographer Captain John G. Withycombe, in a critique of the state of map lettering, listed five essential aims of cartographic typography. [11]
In his 1962 paper, Imhof reiterated the primary importance of legibility, and added the following requirements (listed here with modern terminology); he then showed how most specific guidelines and practices are derived from these principles: [3]
In subsequent literature, textbooks, and the GIS&T Body of Knowledge, legibility, association, and hierarchy are typically listed as the most crucial of these aims, while conflict avoidance is one of the core foundations of Automatic label placement. [12]
Many of the aspects of type styling can be chosen and controlled by the cartographer when designing a particular label to serve the above purposes. In this sense, they are akin to the visual variables of map symbology; in fact, Jacques Bertin extended his own visual variable system to including type styling in 1980 (in French). [13] This work has largely been ignored in English-speaking countries, [14] although similar ideas have been developed by others. [12] [15] [5] The most commonly cited and used typographic variables include:
Determining the ideal location for each label that needs to be on the map is a complex process, with hundreds or thousands of labels competing for space, in addition to the map symbols which are usually more important. It is not a purely subjective decision process; for each label, some locations meet the aims above (especially legibility and association) better than others. An understanding of what makes some placement better than others thus streamlines the process of creating an effective map.
Early textbooks provided some general advice, [2] [1] but the primary contribution of Imhof's 1962 (English 1975) paper was to analyze the best practices of cartographers, and set forth a clear set of rules for label placement. [3] Since then, there has been surprisingly little research into the validity of these rules, especially compared to the numerous psychophysical studies examining many other parts of the map. Even Wood's 2000 update of Imhof, which adds many more guidelines, seems to still be based largely on best practices rather than science. [5] That said, the durability of many of them, in the face of sweeping changes in technology and the capabilities of textual design, and their continued use in professional practice, points to their strength. After decades, only a few of Imhof's original rules have fallen out of favor.
Between Imhof, Wood, and other sources (especially textbooks), it is possible to list dozens of label placement rules. [10] [6] [9] [17] However, dutiful reliance on such lists can be misleading. According to Wood, [5]
The suggestions or 'rules' that follow are intended as guidelines to the intelligent positioning of type, not as inviolate laws to be followed blindly. In the practical application of these principles, it will seldom be possible to satisfy all the rules applying to a given situation. The cartographer must apply the total 'sense' of the guidelines, accepting some and rejecting others.
The "sense of the guidelines" Wood mentions are the aims of legibility, feature association, and a harmonious aesthetic of the map as ordered, professional, and clear. Almost all suggested guidelines can be deduced by evaluating possible labels according to those aims.
From the various lists of placement guidelines, the following is a sample of those most commonly emphasized:
This also includes area features that are too small to label inside, in which case an exterior label treats the area symbol as a point symbol.
Often, these guidelines are also followed for area features with a very linear shape, such as wide rivers.
These guidelines also apply to clusters of points or small areas being labeled as a single feature, such as an island chain.
The software that is commonly used to create maps, including both geographic information systems and graphic design programs, provide a number of options for creating, editing, and storing the hundreds or even thousands of labels in a map. Each of these has advantages and disadvantages for particular situations.
Manually placing a large number of labels is a very time-consuming process, even in modern software; this is especially problematic in Web mapping, where millions of maps are generated every day with no direct input from a cartographer on label placement. [18] Starting in the 1970s, the need for automation was recognized. Yoeli (1972) recognized that many of the placement guidelines espoused by Imhof (1962) and others had an algorithmic or mathematical character to them, which he attempted to specify in preparation for future placement algorithms. [4] [3]
Since then, increasingly robust algorithms have been developed, and existing computational algorithms (such as Simulated annealing) have been adapted to the labeling problem. [19] Today, automated label placement tools are widespread, and is found in software as varied as GI, batch map renderers such as Mapnik, and javascript mapping libraries. That said, because map labelling involves subjective judgments as well as rules or guidelines, most algorithms produce rules that are sub-optimal, especially in complex maps. [20] When possible, cartographers generally use automated labels as a starting point, then refine them.
The other option is to store the location and style of each label in the map data, just like the rest of the map; this is typically called annotation. [21] Text can be modeled as a Geometric primitive, like points, lines, and polygons, and in graphics software, it is stored in the map document in the same way as other geometry, allowing for manual editing of content, position, and style. Many GIS platforms also have this option, but some have the additional option of storing text as a dataset, enabling the same annotation to be reused in multiple maps. [22]
Cartography is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively.
A map is a symbolic depiction emphasizing relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, or themes.
Typography is the art and technique of arranging type to make written language legible, readable and appealing when displayed. The arrangement of type involves selecting typefaces, point sizes, line lengths, line spacing, letter spacing, and spaces between pairs of letters. The term typography is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the letters, numbers, and symbols created by the process. Type design is a closely related craft, sometimes considered part of typography; most typographers do not design typefaces, and some type designers do not consider themselves typographers. Typography also may be used as an ornamental and decorative device, unrelated to the communication of information.
Type design is the art and process of designing typefaces. This involves drawing each letterform using a consistent style. The basic concepts and design variables are described below.
In typography and lettering, a sans-serif, sans serif, gothic, or simply sans letterform is one that does not have extending features called "serifs" at the end of strokes. Sans-serif typefaces tend to have less stroke width variation than serif typefaces. They are often used to convey simplicity and modernity or minimalism. For the purposes of type classification, sans-serif designs are usually divided into these major groups: § Grotesque and § Neo-grotesque, § Geometric, § Humanist and § Other or mixed.
A typeface is a design of letters, numbers and other symbols, to be used in printing or for electronic display. Most typefaces include variations in size, weight, slope, width, and so on. Each of these variations of the typeface is a font.
Frutiger is a series of typefaces named after its Swiss designer, Adrian Frutiger. Frutiger is a humanist sans-serif typeface, intended to be clear and highly legible at a distance or at small text sizes. A popular design worldwide, type designer Steve Matteson described its structure as "the best choice for legibility in pretty much any situation" at small text sizes, while Erik Spiekermann named it as "the best general typeface ever".
Automatic label placement, sometimes called text placement or name placement, comprises the computer methods of placing labels automatically on a map or chart. This is related to the typographic design of such labels.
In graphic design, page layout is the arrangement of visual elements on a page. It generally involves organizational principles of composition to achieve specific communication objectives.
Legibility is the ease with which a reader can decode symbols. In addition to written language, it can also refer to behaviour or architecture, for example. From the perspective of communication research, it can be described as a measure of the permeability of a communication channel. A large number of known factors can affect legibility.
Visual hierarchy, according to Gestalt psychology, is a pattern in the visual field wherein some elements tend to "stand out," or attract attention, more strongly than other elements, suggesting a hierarchy of importance. While it may occur naturally in any visual field, the term is most commonly used in design, where elements are intentionally designed to make some look more important than others. This order is created by the visual contrast between forms in a field of perception. Objects with highest contrast to their surroundings are recognized first by the human mind.
Cartographic generalization, or map generalization, includes all changes in a map that are made when one derives a smaller-scale map from a larger-scale map or map data. It is a core part of cartographic design. Whether done manually by a cartographer or by a computer or set of algorithms, generalization seeks to abstract spatial information at a high level of detail to information that can be rendered on a map at a lower level of detail.
A dot distribution map is a type of thematic map that uses a point symbol to visualize the geographic distribution of a large number of related phenomena. Dot maps are a type of unit visualizations that rely on a visual scatter to show spatial patterns, especially variances in density. The dots may represent the actual locations of individual phenomena, or be randomly placed in aggregation districts to represent a number of individuals. Although these two procedures, and their underlying models, are very different, the general effect is the same.
A map symbol or cartographic symbol is a graphical device used to visually represent a real-world feature on a map, working in the same fashion as other forms of symbols. Map symbols may include point markers, lines, regions, continuous fields, or text; these can be designed visually in their shape, size, color, pattern, and other graphic variables to represent a variety of information about each phenomenon being represented.
San Francisco is a neo-grotesque typeface made by Apple Inc. It was first released to developers on November 18, 2014. It is the first new typeface designed at Apple in nearly twenty years and has been inspired by Helvetica and DIN.
Map layout, also called map composition or (cartographic) page layout, is the part of cartographic design that involves assembling various map elements on a page. This may include the map image itself, along with titles, legends, scale indicators, inset maps, and other elements. It follows principles similar to page layout in graphic design, such as balance, gestalt, and visual hierarchy. The term map composition is also used for the assembling of features and symbols within the map image itself, which can cause some confusion; these two processes share a few common design principles but are distinct procedures in practice. Similar principles of layout design apply to maps produced in a variety of media, from large format wall maps to illustrations in books to interactive web maps, although each medium has unique constraints and opportunities.
A visual variable, in cartographic design, graphic design, and data visualization, is an aspect of a graphical object that can visually differentiate it from other objects, and can be controlled during the design process. The concept was first systematized by Jacques Bertin, a French cartographer and graphic designer, and published in his 1967 book, Sémiologie Graphique. Bertin identified a basic set of these variables and provided guidance for their usage; the concept and the set of variables has since been expanded, especially in cartography, where it has become a core principle of education and practice.
Cartographic design or map design is the process of crafting the appearance of a map, applying the principles of design and knowledge of how maps are used to create a map that has both aesthetic appeal and practical function. It shares this dual goal with almost all forms of design; it also shares with other design, especially graphic design, the three skill sets of artistic talent, scientific reasoning, and technology. As a discipline, it integrates design, geography, and geographic information science.
A proportional symbol map or proportional point symbol map is a type of thematic map that uses map symbols that vary in size to represent a quantitative variable. For example, circles may be used to show the location of cities within the map, with the size of each circle sized proportionally to the population of the city. Typically, the size of each symbol is calculated so that its area is mathematically proportional to the variable, but more indirect methods are also used.
Charles Ernest Riddiford was a British cartographer, who spent most of his career at the National Geographic magazine. He was noted for the elegant use of typography in his works, embraced the challenges of photocomposition and photographic reproduction, and recognised the subliminal impact of the medium on the way information is accepted.