US-China strategic engagement

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US-China strategic engagement refers to a wide range of specific practices and interaction including economic cooperation, public diplomacy, military and foreign aid between the United States and China. This phase of engagement can be traced back to the late 1960s following an intense period of hostility caused by indirect confrontation between the two countries, particularly during the Korean War and the Vietnam War. With the US' support for Taiwan during the Taiwan Strait crises and its military expansion in the Pacific region, the relationship grew more antagonistic for the Chinese government perceive these initiatives to be US' attempt to encircle China. [1] The domestic upheaval as a result of the Cultural Revolution in China and its commitment to communism through political radicalism accelerated the conflict. The four presidencies preceding the Bush administration were said to embrace a national policy direction toward strategic ambiguity, or deliberate ambiguity particularly in dealing with China. [2] In October 2018, Vice President Mike Pence delivered a speech at the Hudson Institute on China, signifying the end of strategic engagement and officially proclaiming a new stage in the bilateral relationship, strategic competition. [3]

Contents

Background

In 1949, the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the mainland after successfully revolting against the Nationalist government further severed its relationship with the US, who feared the balance of power would be threatened by the expansion of a powerful Soviet-led communist bloc. As PRC's paramount leader and Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, in 1950 Mao Zedong paid an official visit to the Soviet Union, where the two communist states entered into agreement the Sino-Soviet Alliance Treaty. [4] The Treaty formalized Kremlin's major commitment to secure the Asian theater from falling under the US' influence by its pledge to supply military equipment and provide financial loans to support China. [4] Although Mao and Kim didn't share many strategic views at the time, with Soviet support China sided with North Korea and contributed its so-called "Chinese volunteers" to fight the war against South Korea, who was backed and defended mainly by the US. [5]

The US' support for the nationalist government across the strait was an important cause in perpetuating the irreconcilable distrust between the two countries. By recognizing the Chiang-led ROC as the legitimate government for the whole China, the US proclaimed its support to strengthening the security cooperation with Taipei by the singing of a mutual defense treaty in 1954. [1] With President John F. Kennedy promising to protect Taiwan during the Taiwan Strait crises of 1955 and 1958 and his insistence on the "Two Chinas policy", any hope for rapprochement at this time was overshadowed by the Chinese immense perception of threat on its quest to reunification. [6]

Further worsening this hostility was the entry into force of a series of defense treaties between the US with Australia, New Zealand, and Japan (ANZUS) and the establishment of SEATO in 1954 as an alliance structure of regional security, which China believed to not only hedge against Soviet influence but also to contain Chinese development. US military engagement in the Pacific led to the forward deployment of its military troops around the region, such stationing activities greatly reinforced the idea of "containment" on the China side. [7]

With the outbreak of the Vietnam War in 1955, US gradually became more involved in the region by directly sending troops to Vietnam to make sure it would not fall under communist control. This ideology-driven calculation was substantiated by the "domino theory", leading to a proxy war fought between North Vietnam who wanted self-determination and a US-backed South Vietnam. [8] Because Vietnam is located in such a geographically strategic area bordering China, the Vietnam War posed an imminent threat to its security. Along with the Soviet Union, China remained a major ally of North Vietnam by providing military training, human power and essential supplies to Viet Cong (the National Liberation Front). [9] The escalation of conflict in Vietnam coincided with China's quickly degrading relationship with the Soviet Union and an increasingly chaotic domestic situation caused by the Cultural Revolution, all of which amplified the threat perception it had against the two biggest powers at this time.

Cold War Change of Atmosphere

Detenté

By the 1960s, the US had started to notice the tension in Sino-Soviet relation, and it sought to take advantage of this crack to contain the Soviet Union. With the Nixon administration attempting to facilitate a settlement to its quagmire in Vietnam, one of the symbolic acts signifying the beginning of Detenté, this paved the way for successful rapprochement. In 1972, Nixon visited China where he gave a landmark speech, also known as the Shanghai Communiqué, on the importance of diplomatic normalization to both countries' interests. The Communiqué assured China that the US would now recognize only the mainland government as the legitimate authority of both states across the Taiwan Strait, and that the US won't challenge against One China Policy, a doctrine asserted by the PRC. [10]

In 1978 President Carter and the PRC agreed to the complete normalization of diplomatic relation, officially ending decades of hostility and confrontation between the two countries. With a change in the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) from Hua Guofeng to Deng Xiaoping in 1978, China implemented a drastic number of market reforms and subsequently became more open to foreign businesses and investment. Referred to in the Carter administration as a political move of "playing the China card" to keep the Soviet Union in check, US' reversal of foreign policy direction regarding the Taiwan issue brought US diplomatic tie with the ROC to an end. [11] However, with the entry into force of the Taiwan Relations Act of 1979, the US continued its substantial but unofficial support to Taiwan to maintain security and strategic peace. [12] The continuation of US arms sales to Taiwan was charged by the PRC as a breach from what their joint Communiqué issued in 1982 has stated, that the US "intends to gradually reduce its sale of arms to Taiwan". [13]

Arm sales to China by the US

The Reagan administration reinforced US commitment to strengthen diplomatic relation with China by the passage of the Third Joint Communiqué in August 1982. [14] With more public pressure to hedge against Soviet expansion, US government eventually allowed government-to-government military purchases to be made by the PRC under the authorization of Congress and the Foreign Military Sales Program. [15] The two countries also embarked on cooperation in the field of nuclear energy, evident in the 1985 Agreement on Nuclear Cooperation, in which the US pledged to provide a legal framework to assist China in its peaceful nuclear development agenda with high technology transferred from US companies. [16] By 1986, the military sale had surpassed US$37 million, approximately $20 million of which were commercial sales. [17] US and China military relationship became more pronounced when US Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger described it in September 1983 as possessing "three pillars" of coordination including senior visits, exchanges and technological cooperation. [18]

Tiananmen Square

Human rights has long been a contentious issue with which the US has to come to terms regarding China. Under the pressure from Congress and the international society which condemned the massacre at Tiananmen Square, President Bush temporarily slowed down cooperation between two states while trying to maintain the substance of their diplomatic ties. US government suspended military exports and arms sales to China, imposed sanctions including cancellations of high-level visits by US senior officials to the mainland. [19] China accused any external effort to intervene into its domestic affairs as an outright infringement on its national sovereignty, including the US'.

Despite the level of international outrage pointed at the crackdown, maintaining ties with China remained important to US national interests. This was shown in the dispatch of National Security Adviser Brent Scowcroft and Deputy Secretary of State Lawrence Eagleburger on a secret task to mend the relationship through diplomatic channels in July 1989, only several weeks after the brutal killings. [20]

Post Cold-War Strategic Issues

G. H. W. Bush administration

Gulf Conflict

A major issue at the beginning of the decade was the occupation of Iraq in Kuwait. [21] Although China agreed to the US-sponsored resolution in the UN Security Council demanding Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait, it was hesitant about agreeing to the use of force under the UNSC auspices to stop the annexation. China chose to abstain when a resolution on this matter was called to a vote on 20 November 1990 (Resolution 678). When a US-led coalition of 35 countries waged a war against Iraq in January - February 1991, this was an opportunity for China to witness the military and technological superiority of the US. China's military modernization was heavily shaped by this experience. [22]

Kosovo Crisis

The issue raised for China at the time of the Gulf Conflict in 1990-1991 arose again in the Kosovo crisis. In 1998–1999, Slobodan Milosevic started an atrocious nationwide project of ethnic cleansing against the majority Kosovo Albanians and the insurgents who wanted to oppose the continuous suppression carried out in the country. China saw US initiative of moving forces into the region to stop Serbian aggression as an attempt to consolidate its hegemonic influence. But China was also concerned about how this move can possibly set a precedent that might be invoked later as a justification for the international community to interfere into matters of strategic importance to China such as Taiwan and Tibet. [19] With those assessments in mind, along with Russia portraying the situation in Kosovo as being exclusively under the Yugoslavian government's national authority, the proposed UNSC resolution to use military force was vetoed. Unable to gain legitimacy for its conduct under UN authorization, the US turned to NATO to seek public support for intervention in Kosovo. [23] The bombing campaign under NATO auspices, which began on 24 March 1999, commenced airstrikes against Serbian military targets in Yugoslavia. [24] A specific crisis in Sino-US relations during this campaign arose after the accidental bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade on 7 May 1999 by US warplanes. [25]

Clinton administration

China's accession to WTO

China's accession to WTO was preceded by a series of lengthy negotiations and discussion on significant required adjustments in the Chinese economy, which was an imperative for membership to be admitted. After Congress granted China the most favored nation status in 1980, the level of traded goods and products between two countries intensified, signaling a new period of economic interdependence when the US went on to become China's third largest-trading partner in 1984. [26] Nevertheless, public pressure from anti-Chinese lobby groups and activists during multiple US Congressional hearings made obtaining China's MFN status renewal increasingly difficult.

In September 1999, Clinton and Chinese leader Jiang Zemin agreed to resume negotiations on China WTO membership when progress was halted after the US accidentally bombed a Chinese embassy in Belgrade. [27] With President Clinton's persuasive rhetoric on the US ability to gain leverage over not only a market-open, reform-committed but also potentially democratizable China whose economic dependence will allow greater room for the US to exercise influence, Congress passed legislation to grant China permanent trading privileges and historically put the two countries on equal footing as the latter became an official member of the WTO. [28]

During this period, the US purposely maintained a neutral attitude of "strategic ambiguity", not seeking to provoke China by promising to defend Taiwan but sending clear signals to express its interest in Taiwan's security. [2]

G. W. Bush administration

Departure from strategic ambiguity

Tension developed in this period for the assertive approach taken by China and an explicitly aggressive attitude adopted by the Bush administration in dealing with sensitive issues. The antagonism was heightened again when President Bush declared that the US would do "whatever it takes" to defend Taiwan, much to the resentment of China. However, the US also had to take care that Taiwan did not exploit this situation and precipitate a crisis to move toward asserting independence. Despite official attempts from the State Department to reconfirm that there had been no change in the US position, the general impression remained that there had been a somewhat departure from the policy of "strategic ambiguity". [29]

War on terrorism

The relationship between the two powers was affected in various ways against the background of the September 11 attacks. With Bush's declaration of the war on terrorism, China indicated its fervent support. Despite the shock induced from this series of brutal terrorist attacks orchestrated by al-Qaeda, at the same time China saw this situation as providing opportunities for improving relations with the US. In the Middle East, China joined the US-led anti-terrorism campaign in Afghanistan against the Taliban, and tactically gained US trust as a regional intermediary in pressuring Pakistan for cooperation. In Asia, China put aside its historical resentment toward Japan's potential marine expansion in the region and agreed to Japanese vessels' operation in the Indian Ocean to support the war against Afghanistan. By giving its full support to US in the war against terrorism, China hoped to win US support in its campaign against Muslim separatists in Xinjiang who were now labelled "terrorists". The US was reluctant to support China's suppression efforts over separatist movements in Xinjiang, and the differences over Tibet and Taiwan seemed irreconcilable.

North Korean issue

In Northeast Asia developments relating to North Korea highlighted the importance of Sino-US cooperation. The Republican administration was critical of the 1994 Geneva Accord for giving too much energy and financial assistance to North Korea without there being any guarantee that it would not renege on its commitment. This led to North Korea reactivating one of its nuclear proliferation programs, and subsequently withdrawing from the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. [30] US and China worked closely to constrain North Korea's nuclear capability, which was shown in their joint effort to formalize the Six Party Talks in 2003. While US needed China to apply pressure on Pyongyang, China remained skeptical of the degree of pragmatic actualization of a comprehensive and verifiable denuclearization goal set out by the former state.

Obama administration

President Obama visited China during his first year in office, making him the first US president to ever do so. Obama reshaped the direction of American foreign policy with his proclamation of "Pivot to Asia", and so engagement with China on all strategic fields of importance still remains a priority throughout his two terms. Generally focusing on peaceful cooperation with a clearly constrained reliance on military rhetoric, the relationship between two countries witnessed mostly positive development in Obama's first term, but gradually became characterized by more complex layers of dynamics and accompanied global-level threats during the final years of Obama's administration.

Obama was a fervent supporter of facilitating dialogues and keeping negotiations alive when it comes to China. [31] His participation in international intergovernmental economic organizations demonstrated a relentless attempt to integrate China into the already existing border-transcending institutional frameworks such as the G7 and G20, a practice held by his administration to work in favor of both the world and America. [32]

The two countries collaborated to impose sanctions on North Korea for its continued proliferation activities of nuclear weapons through the binding power given by the UNSC. Both states vowed to take an initiative in the fight against global warming and climate change by the signing of the Paris accords, which China has said it would protect even when Donald Trump decided to withdraw the US from the agreement. [33] The Paris climate deal pledges to cut global greenhouse gas emission and transform the world into a low-carbon consuming business with big industrialized states like the US and China committing to modify national legislation to meet the preset objectives. [34] During his first Asia trip in 2017 since leaving office, Obama was complimented by General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping for his devoted contributions in bettering Sino-US relation albeit the still on-going territorial disputes in the South China Sea and the high level of tension caused by a huge trade deficit in their trade relationship.

Trump administration

US China relationship has been characterized by a high level of friction within the first few years of the Trump administration. The massive over-time accumulation of US trade deficit against China has resulted in the media labeling their trade interaction the "trade war". Because China imports raw materials and petroleum from the community of developing countries in the Middle East and exports manufactured goods to the US, it has an asymmetrically large surplus with the latter. [35] Leaders of the two countries have worsened the issue by imposing tariffs in a tit-for-tat chain of reactions which whipsaw American businesses with production facilities outsourced in China for cheap labor and easy access to the market. [35]

Much of the unsettled conflicts dealt with by previous administrations still account for a large part in the two countries' relationship. These problems have become much more complicated and encompass many different aspects including freedom of navigation in the South China Sea, tension over autonomous regions, global threats like climate change, cyber warfare, international terrorism, and possible covert interference into US elections, all of which require an efficient exercise of diplomacy and cooperation.

The Trump administration has vastly changed the method by which the US has often used to pressure China on making economic concessions, which is the exercise of powerplay derived from multilateralism. [35] The US pulled out its signature from the TPP, a regional trade pact in Asia Pacific committed to protect intellectual property rights, maintain labor standards, reinforce environmental regulations and reduce trade barriers between member states. [36] Without a US-led economic arm that could help contain China's geopolitical influence, US withdrawal was perceived by many to further enhance China's domination in the region.

On October 4, 2018, Vice President Pence stated to the press that a new approach in dealing with China's excesses would be taken, officially ending the era of strategic engagement and transitioning into strategic competition. [37]

Aftermath

The long-standing strategy of "Engagement", which aimed to incorporate a rising China into the Western-led international order, has given way to a tough but as-yet-unnamed approach variously termed "competition", "decoupling", and for some, "containment" amidst a new "Cold War". [38] [39]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign relations of China</span>

China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), has full diplomatic relations with 180 out of the other 192 United Nations member states, Cook Islands, Niue and the State of Palestine. As of 2024, China has had the most diplomatic missions of any state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign relations of Taiwan</span>

Foreign relations of the Republic of China (ROC), more commonly known as Taiwan, are accomplished by efforts of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China, a cabinet-level ministry of the Government of the Republic of China. As of January 2024, the ROC has formal diplomatic relations with 11 of the 193 United Nations member states and with the Holy See, which governs the Vatican City State. In addition to these relations, the ROC also maintains unofficial relations with 59 UN member states, one self-declared state (Somaliland), three territories (Guam, Hong Kong, and Macau), and the European Union via its representative offices and consulates. In 2021, the Government of the Republic of China had the 33rd largest diplomatic network in the world with 110 offices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign relations of Vietnam</span>

As of September 2024, Vietnam maintains diplomatic relationships with 191 UN member states, State of Palestine and Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. In 2011 the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam, at the 11th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam, released an official statement about Vietnam's foreign policy and a section of the statement stated: "Vietnam is a friend and reliable partner of all countries in the international community, actively taking part in international and regional cooperation processes. Deepen, stabilize and sustain established international relations. Develop relations with countries and territories in the world, as well as international organizations, while showing: respect for each other's independence; sovereignty and territorial integrity; non-interference in each other's international affairs; non-use or threat of force; settlement of disagreements and disputes by means of peaceful negotiations; mutual respect, equality and mutual benefit."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">China–United States relations</span> Bilateral relations

The relationship between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the United States of America (USA) has been complex and at times tense since the establishment of the PRC and the retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan in 1949. Since the normalization of relations in the 1970s, the US–China relationship has been marked by numerous perennial disputes including the political status of Taiwan, territorial disputes in the South China Sea, and more recently the treatment of Uyghurs in Xinjiang. They have significant economic ties and are significantly intertwined, yet they also have a global hegemonic great power rivalry. As of 2024, China and the United States are the world's second-largest and largest economies by nominal GDP, as well as the largest and second-largest economies by GDP (PPP) respectively. Collectively, they account for 44.2% of the global nominal GDP, and 34.7% of global PPP-adjusted GDP.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sino-Soviet split</span> Conflict between communist blocs

The Sino-Soviet split was the gradual worsening of relations between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) during the Cold War. This was primarily caused by doctrinal divergences that arose from their different interpretations and practical applications of Marxism–Leninism, as influenced by their respective geopolitics during the Cold War of 1947–1991. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Sino-Soviet debates about the interpretation of orthodox Marxism became specific disputes about the Soviet Union's policies of national de-Stalinization and international peaceful coexistence with the Western Bloc, which Chinese leader Mao Zedong decried as revisionism. Against that ideological background, China took a belligerent stance towards the Western world, and publicly rejected the Soviet Union's policy of peaceful coexistence between the Western Bloc and Eastern Bloc. In addition, Beijing resented the Soviet Union's growing ties with India due to factors such as the Sino-Indian border dispute, and Moscow feared that Mao was too nonchalant about the horrors of nuclear warfare.

History of foreign relations of China covers diplomatic, military, political and economic relations in History of China from 1800 to the modern era. For the earlier period see Foreign relations of imperial China, and for the current foreign relations of China see Foreign relations of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States foreign policy toward the People's Republic of China</span>

The United States foreign policy toward the People's Republic of China originated during the Cold War. At that time, the U.S. had a containment policy against communist states. The leaked Pentagon Papers indicated the efforts by the U.S. to contain China through military actions undertaken in the Vietnam War. The containment policy centered around an island chain strategy. President Richard Nixon's China rapprochement signaled a shift in focus to gain leverage in containing the Soviet Union. Formal diplomatic ties between the U.S. and China were established in 1979, and with normalized trade relations since 2000, the U.S. and China have been linked by closer economic ties and more cordial relations. In his first term as U.S. president, Barack Obama said, "We want China to succeed and prosper. It's good for the United States if China continues on the path of development that it's on".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South Korea–United States relations</span> Bilateral relations

Diplomatic relations between South Korea and the United States commenced in 1949. The United States helped establish the modern state of South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, and fought on its UN-sponsored side in the Korean War (1950–1953). During the subsequent decades, South Korea experienced tremendous economic, political and military growth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">India–United States relations</span> Bilateral relations

Relations between India and the United States date back to India's independence movement and have continued well after independence from the United Kingdom in 1947. Currently, India and the United States enjoy close relations and have deepened collaboration on issues such as counterterrorism and countering Chinese influence in the Indo-Pacific.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">China–Japan relations</span> Bilateral relations

China–Japan relations or Sino-Japanese relations are the bilateral relations between China and Japan. The countries are geographically separated by the East China Sea. Japan has been strongly influenced throughout its history by China, especially by the East and Southeast through the gradual process of Sinicization with its language, architecture, culture, cuisine, religion, philosophy, and law. When Japan was forced to open trade relations with the West after the Perry Expedition in the mid-19th century, Japan plunged itself through an active process of Westernization during the Meiji Restoration in 1868 and began viewing China under the Qing dynasty as an antiquated civilization unable to defend itself against foreign forces—in part due to the First and Second Opium Wars along with the Eight-Nation Alliance's involvement in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion. Japan eventually took advantage of such weaknesses by invading China, including the First Sino-Japanese War and the Second Sino-Japanese War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States–Vietnam relations</span> Bilateral relations

Formal relations between the United States and Vietnam were initiated in the nineteenth century under former American president Andrew Jackson, but relations soured after the United States refused to protect the Kingdom of Vietnam from a French invasion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">China–North Korea relations</span> Bilateral relations

The bilateral relations between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) have been generally friendly, although they have been somewhat strained in recent years because of North Korea's nuclear program. They have a close special relationship. China and North Korea have a mutual aid and co-operation treaty, signed in 1961, which is currently the only defense treaty China has with any nation. China's relationship with North Korea is its only formal alliance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taiwan–United States relations</span> Bilateral relations

After the United States established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1979 and recognized Beijing as the only legal government of China, Taiwan–United States relations became unofficial and informal following terms of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), which allows the United States to have relations with the Taiwanese people and their government, whose name is not specified. U.S.–Taiwan relations were further informally grounded in the Six Assurances in response to the third communiqué on the establishment of US–PRC relations. The Taiwan Travel Act, passed by the U.S. Congress on March 16, 2018, allows high-level U.S. officials to visit Taiwan and vice versa. Both sides have since signed a consular agreement formalizing their existent consular relations on September 13, 2019. The US government removed self-imposed restrictions on executive branch contacts with Taiwan on January 9, 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Act East policy</span> Indias foreign policy dealing with South-East Asian nations

The Act East policy is an effort by the Government of India to cultivate extensive economic and strategic relations with the nations of Southeast Asia to bolster its standing as a regional power and a counterweight to the strategic influence of the People's Republic of China.

The Group of Two is a hypothetical and an informal grouping made up of the United States of America and People's Republic of China that was first proposed by C. Fred Bergsten. While the original concept had a strong economic focus, more recent iterations have a more all-encompassing focus. This is the result of the concept gaining more traction with members of the Obama Administration and foreign policy establishment who came to recognize the increasing importance of America's relationship with China. Prominent advocates of the grouping include former National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski, historian Niall Ferguson, former World Bank President Robert Zoellick and former chief economist Justin Yifu Lin.

U.S. President Barack Obama's East Asia Strategy (2009–2017), also known as the Pivot to Asia, represented a significant shift in the foreign policy of the United States since the 2010s. It shifted the country's focus away from the Middle Eastern and European sphere and allowed it to invest heavily and build relationships in East Asian and Southeast Asian countries, especially countries which are in close proximity to the People's Republic of China (PRC) either economically, geographically or politically to counter its rise as a rival potential superpower.

The People's Republic of China emerged as a great power and one of the three big players in the tri-polar geopolitics (PRC-US-USSR) during the Cold War, after the Korean War in 1950-1953 and the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s, with its status as a recognized nuclear weapons state in 1960s. Currently, China has one of the world's largest populations, second largest GDP (nominal) and the largest economy in the world by PPP.

The foreign policy of Xi Jinping concerns the policies of the People's Republic of China's Xi Jinping with respect to other nations. Xi became the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 2012 and became the President of the People's Republic of China in 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sino-Soviet relations from 1969 to 1991</span> Historical bilateral relations

Relations between the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union underwent significant change from 1969 to 1991, from open conflict to bitter détente to diplomatic partners by 1989. Relations between the Soviet Union (USSR) and Chinese Communist Party (CCP) dated back to the founding of the CCP in Shanghai in 1921, a meeting conducted under the supervision of the Communist International. The Soviets remained cautious partners with the rising CCP throughout the 22 years of the Chinese Civil War, and the USSR was the first nation to recognize the People's Republic of China in 1949. The following year saw the signing of the Sino-Soviet Treaty and founding of the Sino-Soviet alliance as well as the beginning of a decade of economic cooperation between the two nations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Korea–Taiwan relations</span> Bilateral relations

North Korean–Taiwan relations

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  38. ↑ "The End of Engagement: Expertise, Domestic Politics, and U.S. China Strategy under Trump" (PDF). Mershon Center. Retrieved 2020-10-17.
  39. ↑ David M. McCourt (2022-08-08). "Knowledge Communities in US Foreign Policy Making: The American China Field and the End of Engagement with the PRC" (PDF). Security Studies. 31 (4). doi:10.1080/09636412.2022.2133629. ISSN   0963-6412.
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