White sturgeon

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White sturgeon
4803 white sturgeon swart odfw (4455050144).jpg
A white sturgeon at the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife's Sturgeon Center at Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River. This fish is also known to be euryhaline. It’s closely related to lake sturgeon and short nose sturgeon.
CITES Appendix II (CITES) [2]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Acipenseriformes
Family: Acipenseridae
Genus: Acipenser
Species:
A. transmontanus
Binomial name
Acipenser transmontanus

White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous (migratory) fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico. [3]

Contents

Description

A 7.6 foot long white sturgeon caught in 1998. White sturgeon (91 inches) Russian River's Haciendo Hole 1998.jpg
A 7.6 foot long white sturgeon caught in 1998.

A. transmontanus is distinguished by the two rows of four to eight ganoid bony plates between the anus and anal fin, with about 45 rays present in the dorsal fin. Coloring can range from gray to brownish on the dorsal side, paler on the ventral side, and gray fins. Barbels are situated anterior to the mouth, closer to the snout than the mouth.

At sexual maturity, A. transmontanus can reach 1.6 m (5.2 ft) in length, while the maximum length recorded of any age class is 6.1 m (20 ft), with common lengths around 2.1 m (6.9 ft). While age at maturity is uncertain, possible age ranges of known A. transmontanus specimens range from 11 to 34 years old. [3] The most authentic record of the maximum weight of this species is reported to be 630 kg (1,390 lb), while other unauthenticated records show a higher weight estimate, as with the 816 kg (1,799 lb) estimate for an individual with a reported age of 104 years. [4] [3] In one 1995 study, a sample of adults weighed from 34 to 75 kg (75 to 165 lb). [5] A specimen, considered the largest in the state in recent years, of 210 kg (460 lb) at a length of 2.8 m (9.2 ft) was recorded relatively recently in California. [6]

Taxonomy

Alternate common names include: Pacific sturgeon, Oregon sturgeon, Columbia sturgeon, Snake River sturgeon and Sacramento sturgeon. The specific name is derived from the Latin words acipenser (sturgeon), trans (over or beyond), and montanus (mountain). [7]

A white sturgeon at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, California White Sturgeon Monterey Bay Aquarium.jpg
A white sturgeon at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, California

The white sturgeon is part of a Pacific clade of species including Kaluga (Huso dauricus), Sakhalin (Acipenser mikadoi), Green (Acipenser medirostris), Chinese (Acipenser sinensis) and Amur (Acipenser schrenkii) Sturgeon. [8] Recent genetic analysis supports a close relationship between (A. transmontanus) and (A. schrenckii), which is only found in Asia, showing a common ancestor between the two around 45.8 million years ago. Using microsatellites, genetic differentiation between different river systems in the Pacific Northwest and California is high enough to be able to distinguish between white sturgeon populations and validate a structure in which watershed (A. transmontanus) resides in.[ citation needed ]

Extant sturgeon species are polyploid, containing more than two paired sets of chromosomes, derived from an extinct ancestor containing 60 chromosomes. [9] Genome duplication during sturgeon evolution has led to three different groups of species with 120, 240, and 360 chromosomes. Recent study of microsatellite inheritance in white sturgeon supports that it is an ancestral octoploid, with 240 chromosomes. [10]

Distribution and habitat

White sturgeon are native to several large North American rivers that drain to the Pacific Ocean. They primarily live in estuaries of large rivers, but migrate to spawn in freshwater, and travel long distances between river systems. Reproducing populations have been documented along the West Coast, from northern Mexico up to the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. White sturgeon are commonly found in deep, soft bottomed areas of estuaries, where movements in the water column is dependent on salinity. [11] Historical ranges have been modified substantially by overharvesting, habitat changes due to dams, and river regulations; all affecting habitat quality, suitability and connectivity. [8]

In the lower Fraser River, British Columbia, movement and abundance are assessed by acoustic tags and mark recapture methods. While the model developed by Robichaud, English and Nelson [12] assumes a closed homogenous population, acoustic tags and mark-recapture data shows that they are sedentary during the winter months and mobile in the spring and fall, with data indicating that they leave the Fraser River and enter the Strait of Georgia during their mobile periods; this conclusion has been validated by microchemical evidence of marine exposure in Fraser River white sturgeon fin rays. [13]

Construction of dams for hydroelectric power production affects seasonal movement of white sturgeon in many river systems, with the Columbia River Basin being a large contributor to shifts in the distribution and movement. The dams present in the basin have largely blocked the upstream movement of sturgeon, due to designs of fish ladders being more specified for salmon and steelhead. While downstream passage of sturgeon through the dams has been reported, the route of passage was never identified. Downstream movement through the dams are only possible through operating turbines, open spill gates and the ice and trash sluiceway. [14]

Diet

Larval white sturgeon 10–11 mm (0.39–0.43 in) in TL experience the highest mortality when they transition from endogenous to exogenous feeding, around 8–14 days post-hatch depending on conditions. Once larvae metamorphose into young of the year (YOY) and juveniles, they actively feed on the substrate, dominantly Corophium spp., relying on water currents to carry them downriver to areas of suitable food. The availability of Corophium spp. could play a key role in the survival of larval and YOY white sturgeon in the Columbia River and could possibly explain the apparent poor survival of larvae and YOY in some Snake and Columbia River reservoirs that apparently have successful spawning but poor recruitment. [15] Juveniles less than 600 mm (2.0 ft) TL are known to feed on tube-dwelling amphipods, mysids, isopods, Corophium spp, and other benthic invertebrates, as well as on the eggs and fry of other fish species. [16] Adults greater than 600 mm (2.0 ft) consume a variety prey species, adjusting to a piscivorous diet of herring, shad, starry flounder, goby, smelt, anchovy, lamprey, and salmon, as well as benthic items such as invasive overbite clam. [16] [17] With feeding movements influenced due to tidal cycles, studies show more active movement at night, hinting that white sturgeon may be nocturnal foragers. [14]

Studies have shown that dietary lipid requirements on larval white sturgeon effect overall body composition, plasma biochemical parameters and liver fatty acids. With increasing dietary lipid levels, whole body and muscle lipid content increases, as well as increased plasma triglycerides and cholesterol content. This shows that larval sturgeon post-hatch grow faster on high lipid diets, reducing glycogen stores but increasing stores of lipid in the liver. [18] The importance of this can help to understand growth rates in changing environments with varying food sources.[ citation needed ]

Reproduction

A juvenile white sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus.jpg
A juvenile white sturgeon

"White sturgeons are iteroparous breeders with a spawning period in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers between mid-February to late May, with peak activity during March and April" - Kohlhorst 1976. [19]

There is much uncertainty around reproduction timing of events in white sturgeon, with many papers reporting differing results dependent on the river system observed. Chapman, Van Enennaam and Doroshov [20] witnessed sexually mature females 950 mm (3.12 ft) FL in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River system estimated around 9 years old by using the Von Bertalannfy growth function, while the youngest sexual mature was a male 750 mm (2.46 ft) FL estimated to be six years old. However, other reports have sexual maturity for white sturgeon at 12 and 10 years old for females and males. Uncertainty around age estimates from fin ray annulus may account for any disparity.

Spawning periodicity is thought to be 2 to 4 years for females and 1 to 2 years for males. Behavior during spawning is not well known, but it is known that they are communal broadcast spawners, where a female's eggs are fertilized by many males. When ready to spawn, white sturgeon choose a variety of substrates dependent on the river system, spawning on gravel or rocky substrate in moderate to fast currents, with observed depths of 3–23 m (9.8–75.5 ft), and water velocities at the bottom on a range of 0.6-2.4 m/sec. [21] When eggs are released by the female, they are negatively buoyant, and develop an adhesive coat upon contact with water, which allows them to attach to the substrate near where they were spawned. Hatching time is temperature dependent, and can range from 3–13 days. Optimal temperature is between 14 and 16 °C (57 and 61 °F), with mortality observed below 8 °C (46 °F) and above 2 °C (36 °F). [22]

Importance to humans

A white sturgeon farm in California White sturgeon farming california.jpg
A white sturgeon farm in California

White sturgeon are a resource to a variety of different social and economic groups around the world. Aquaculture facilities cultivate white sturgeon in California and juveniles can be sold to aquarists. They were once the main food source for Native Americans in the 1800s, until overfishing by commercial fleets for caviar drove them to near extinction by the early 1900s. [23] Besides their meat, other important economic products associated with caught sturgeon are caviar, isinglass, and oil. While selling a wild white sturgeon and eggs is illegal in California, it is legal to buy legal caviar from California White sturgeon farms. [24] [25] Poaching is an ongoing issue, in which caviar can sell on the black market for 100–150 dollars a pound, while a consumer buying legally made caviar from California sturgeon farms pays anywhere from 40 to 700 dollars for an ounce. [26]

White sturgeon also play a role in sport fishing in the Pacific Northwest, while closed to retention in the Columbia River Basin, catch and release fishing is allowed, with enough popularity for guiding services to offer fishing trips targeted specifically at white sturgeon. [27]

Conservation status

Trends in white sturgeon abundance has been monitored in California for decades, with data showing large variations in recruitment, including 5 or more consecutive years of low or no recruitment, with probable cause being due to low flows during winter and/or spring months. Although some present white sturgeon populations have been reduced over the past 30 years, some population trends in California are promising, resulting in new angling regulations, monitoring, research efforts, fish passage and habitat restoration. [23]

Despite being a relatively robust population that includes tens of thousands of sub-adults and adults, management is complicated due to exposure of pollutants, freshwater and estuary alteration, harvest, and because of its long life span, which can mask detection of reproductive success. [8] NatureServe ranks white sturgeon globally secure, but imperiled in California due to anthropogenic impacts on their habitats. The American Fisheries Society considers them to be Endangered. [28] The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of Wild Fauna and Flora has white sturgeon listed as Appendix II, which includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival. [29]

Related Research Articles

Sturgeon is the common name for the 28 species of fish belonging to the family Acipenseridae. The earliest sturgeon fossils date to the Late Cretaceous, and are descended from other, earlier acipenseriform fish, which date back to the Early Jurassic period, some 174 to 201 million years ago. They are one of two living families of the Acipenseriformes alongside paddlefish (Polyodontidae). The family is grouped into four genera: Acipenser, Huso, Scaphirhynchus, and Pseudoscaphirhynchus. Two species may be extinct in the wild, and one may be entirely extinct. Sturgeons are native to subtropical, temperate and sub-Arctic rivers, lakes and coastlines of Eurasia and North America. A Maastrichtian-age fossil found in Morocco shows that they also once lived in Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caviar</span> Food consisting of salt-cured roe

Caviar is a food consisting of salt-cured roe of the family Acipenseridae. Caviar is considered a delicacy and is eaten as a garnish or spread. Traditionally, the term caviar refers only to roe from wild sturgeon in the Caspian Sea and Black Sea. The term caviar can also describe the roe of other species of sturgeon or other fish such as paddlefish, salmon, steelhead, trout, lumpfish, whitefish, or carp.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beluga (sturgeon)</span> Species of fish in the sturgeon family

The beluga, also known as the beluga sturgeon or great sturgeon, is a species of anadromous fish in the sturgeon family (Acipenseridae) of the order Acipenseriformes. It is found primarily in the Caspian and Black Sea basins, and formerly in the Adriatic Sea. Based on maximum size, it is the third-most-massive living species of bony fish. Heavily fished for the female's valuable roe, known as beluga caviar, wild populations have been greatly reduced by overfishing and poaching, leading IUCN to classify the species as critically endangered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kaluga (fish)</span> Species of sturgeon

The kaluga, also known as the river beluga, is a large predatory sturgeon found in the Amur River basin from Russia to China and near Hokkaido in Japan. With a maximum size of at least 1,000 kg (2,205 lb) and 5.6 m (18 ft), the kaluga is one of the biggest of the sturgeon family. Like the slightly larger beluga, it spends part of its life in salt water. Unlike the beluga, this fish has 5 major rows of dermal scutes and feeds on salmon and other fish in the Amur with its nail like teeth in its jaws. They have gray-green to black backs with a yellowish green-white underbelly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pink salmon</span> Species of fish

Pink salmon or humpback salmon is a species of euryhaline ray-finned fish in the family Salmonidae. It is the type species of the genus Oncorhynchus, and is the smallest and most abundant of the seven officially recognized species of salmon. The species' scientific name is based on the Russian common name for this species gorbúša (горбуша), which literally means humpie.

The lake sturgeon, also known as the rock sturgeon, is a North American temperate freshwater fish, one of about 25 species of sturgeon. Like other sturgeons, this species is a bottom feeder and has a partly cartilaginous skeleton, an overall streamlined shape, and skin bearing rows of bony plates on the sides and back.

The Chinese sturgeon is a critically endangered member of the family Acipenseridae in the order Acipenseriformes. Historically, this anadromous fish was found in China, Japan, and the Korean Peninsula, but it has been extirpated from Korea, Japan, and most regions in China due to habitat loss and overfishing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European sea sturgeon</span> Species of fish

The European sea sturgeon, also known as the Atlantic sturgeon or common sturgeon, is a species of sturgeon native to Europe. It was formerly abundant, being found in coastal habitats all over Europe. Most specifically, they reach the Black and Baltic Sea. It is anadromous and breeds in rivers. It is currently a critically endangered species. Although the name Baltic sturgeon sometimes has been used, it has now been established that sturgeon of the Baltic region are A. oxyrinchus, a species otherwise restricted to the Atlantic coast of North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantic sturgeon</span> Subspecies of fish

The Atlantic sturgeon is a member of the family Acipenseridae, and, along with other sturgeon, it is sometimes considered a living fossil. The Atlantic sturgeon is one of two subspecies of A. oxyrinchus, the other being the Gulf sturgeon. The main range of the Atlantic sturgeon is in eastern North America, extending from New Brunswick, Canada, to the eastern coast of Florida, United States. A disjunct population occurs in the Baltic region of Europe. The Atlantic sturgeon was in great abundance when the first European settlers came to North America, but has since declined due to overfishing, water pollution, and habitat impediments such as dams. It is considered threatened, endangered, and even locally extinct in many of its original habitats. The fish can reach 60 years of age, 15 ft (4.6 m) in length and over 800 lb (360 kg) in weight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sterlet</span> Species of fish

The sterlet is a relatively small species of sturgeon from Eurasia native to large rivers that flow into the Black Sea, Azov Sea, and Caspian Sea, as well as rivers in Siberia as far east as Yenisei. Populations migrating between fresh and salt water (anadromous) have been extirpated. It is also known as the sterlet sturgeon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Starry sturgeon</span> Species of fish

The starry sturgeon, also known as the stellate sturgeon or sevruga, is a species of sturgeon. It is native to the Black, Azov, Caspian and Aegean sea basins, but it has been extirpated from the last and it is predicted that the remaining natural population will follow soon due to overfishing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shortnose sturgeon</span> Species of fish

The shortnose sturgeon is a small and endangered species of North American sturgeon. The earliest remains of the species are from the Late Cretaceous Period, over 70 million years ago. Shortnose sturgeons are long-lived and slow to sexually mature. Most sturgeons are anadromous bottom-feeders, which means they migrate upstream to spawn but spend most of their lives feeding in rivers, deltas and estuaries. The shortnose sturgeon is often mistaken as a juvenile Atlantic sturgeon because of its small size. Prior to 1973, U.S. commercial fishing records did not differentiate between the two species: both were reported as "common sturgeon", although it is believed based on sizes that the bulk of the catch was Atlantic sturgeon. The shortnose is distinguishable from the Atlantic sturgeon due to its shorter and rounder head.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green sturgeon</span> Species of fish

The green sturgeon is a species of sturgeon native to the northern Pacific Ocean, from China and Russia to Canada and the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persian sturgeon</span> Species of fish

The Persian sturgeon is a species of fish in the family Acipenseridae. It is found in the Caspian Sea and to a lesser extent the Black Sea and ascends certain rivers to spawn, mainly the Volga, Kura, Araks and Ural Rivers. It is heavily fished for its flesh and its roe and is limited in its up-river migrations by damming of the rivers. Young fish feed on small invertebrates, graduating to larger prey such as crabs and fish as they grow. The threats faced by this fish include excessive fishing with the removal of immature fish before they have bred, damming of the rivers, loss of spawning areas and water pollution. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed the fish as critically endangered and has suggested that the increased provision of hatcheries could be of benefit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siberian sturgeon</span> Species of fish

The Siberian sturgeon is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae. It is most present in all of the major Siberian river basins that drain northward into the Kara, Laptev and East Siberian Seas, including the Ob, Yenisei Lena, and Kolyma Rivers. It was also found in Kazakhstan and China in the Irtysh River, a major tributary of the Ob, though wild populations are extirpated in China. The species epithet honors the German Russian biologist Karl Ernst von Baer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russian sturgeon</span> Species of fish

The Russian sturgeon, also known as the diamond sturgeon or Danube sturgeon, is a species of fish in the family Acipenseridae. It is found in Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Iran, Kazakhstan, Romania, Russia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine. It is also found in the Caspian Sea. This fish can grow up to about 235 cm (93 in) and weigh 115 kg (254 lb). Russian sturgeon mature and reproduce slowly, making them highly vulnerable to fishing. It is distinguished from other Acipenser species by its short snout with a rounded tip as well as its lower lip which is interrupted at its center.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sakhalin sturgeon</span> Species of fish

The Sakhalin sturgeon or Mikado sturgeon is a species of fish in the family Acipenseridae. It is found in Japan and Russia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adriatic sturgeon</span> Species of fish

The Adriatic sturgeon is a species of fish in the family Acipenseridae. It is native to the Adriatic Sea and large rivers which flow in it of Albania, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slovenia. Specimens can be seen in several public aquarium, such the Milan Aquarium, Aquarium Finisterrae, Aquarium of the Po, and Oasis of Sant'Alessio in Lombardy.

<i>Acipenser oxyrinchus</i> Species of fish

Acipenser oxyrinchus is a species of sturgeon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Freshwater fish of Spain</span>

This is a list of extant freshwater fish that could be found in Spain. The majority of the fish present are from the order Cypriniformes. This list states if the fish are native or introduced. For clarification, an endemic species is a species that is found only in a specific geographic region. IUCN status represents the extinction risk for each species and the fish found in Spain range from least concern to critically endangered.

References

  1. ↑ Crossman, J.; Hildebrand, L. (2022). "Acipenser transmontanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2022: e.T234A97440736. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T234A97440736.en . Retrieved 21 July 2022.
  2. ↑ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  3. 1 2 3 Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Acipenser transmontanus". FishBase . October 2017 version.
  4. ↑ Hildebrand, L.; McLeod, C.; McKenzie, S. (1999). "Status and management of white sturgeon in the Columbia River in British Columbia, Canada: an overview". Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 15 (4–5): 164–172. Bibcode:1999JApIc..15..164H. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0426.1999.tb00227.x .
  5. ↑ Watson, L. R.; Yun, S. C.; Groff, J. M. & Hedrick, R. P. (1995). "Characteristics and pathogenicity of a novel herpesvirus isolated from adult and subadult white sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus". Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 22 (3): 199–210. doi:10.3354/dao022199.
  6. ↑ "White Sturgeon". UC Davis California Fish Website.
  7. ↑ Christopher Scharpf & Kenneth J. Lazara (11 June 2023). "Family ACIPENSERIDAE Bonaparte 1831 (Sturgeons)". The ETYFish Project Fish Name Etymology Database. Christopher Scharpf and Kenneth J. Lazara. Retrieved 27 June 2024.
  8. 1 2 3 Hildebrand, L. R.; Drauch Schreier, A.; Lepla, K.; McAdam, S. O.; McLellan, J.; Parsley, M. J.; Paragamian, V. L.; Young, S.P. (2016). "Status of White Sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus Richardson, 1863) throughout the species range, threats to survival, and prognosis for the future". Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 32: 261–312. Bibcode:2016JApIc..32..261H. doi: 10.1111/jai.13243 .
  9. ↑ Dingerkus, G; Howell, W. (1976-11-19). "Karyotypic analysis and evidence of tetraploidy in the North American paddlefish, Polyodon spathula". Science. 194 (4267): 842–844. Bibcode:1976Sci...194..842D. doi:10.1126/science.982045. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   982045.
  10. ↑ Drauch Schreier, A.; Gille, D.; Mahardja, B.; May, B. (2011). "Neutral markers confirm the octoploid origin and reveal spontaneous autopolyploidy in white sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanus". Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 27: 24–33. Bibcode:2011JApIc..27...24D. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0426.2011.01873.x .
  11. ↑ Kohlhorst, D. W.; Botsford, L. W.; Brennan, J. S.; Caillet, G. M. (1991). "Aspects of the structure and dynamics of an exploited central California population of White Sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus)". In P. Williot (ed.). Acipenser. Actes du premier colloque international sur l'esturgeon (in French). Bordeaux, France: CEMAGREF. pp. 277–293. 518 pp. ISBN   2-85362-208-8.
  12. ↑ Robichaud, David; English, Karl K.; Nelson, Troy C. (2017). "Annual Movements of Acoustic-Tagged White Sturgeon in the Lower Reaches of the Fraser River and its Tributaries". Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 146 (4): 611–625. Bibcode:2017TrAFS.146..611R. doi:10.1080/00028487.2017.1294542.
  13. ↑ Government of Canada, Public Services and Procurement Canada. "COSEWIC assessment and update status report on the white sturgeon, 2004" (PDF). publications.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-08-14.
  14. 1 2 Parsley, Michael J.; Popoff, Nicholas D.; Wright, Corey D.; van der Leeuw, Bjorn K. (July 2008). "Seasonal and Diel Movements of White Sturgeon in the Lower Columbia River". Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 137 (4): 1007–1017. Bibcode:2008TrAFS.137.1007P. doi:10.1577/t07-027.1. ISSN   0002-8487.
  15. ↑ [Muir, W. D., McCabe, G. J., Parsley, M. J., & Hinton, S. A. (2000). Diet of first-feeding larval and young-of-the-year White Sturgeon in the lower Columbia river. Northwest Science, 74(1), 25–33]
  16. 1 2 Crossman, James A.; Jay, Kathleen J.; Hildebrand, Larry R. (2016). "Describing the Diet of Juvenile White Sturgeon in the Upper Columbia River Canada with Lethal and Nonlethal Methods". North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 36 (2): 421–432. Bibcode:2016NAJFM..36..421C. doi:10.1080/02755947.2015.1125976.
  17. ↑ "Acipenser transmontanus (Oregon sturgeon)". Animal Diversity Web .
  18. ↑ Gawlicka, A.; Herold, M. A.; Barrows, F. T.; de la Noue, J.; Hung, S. S. O. (2002). "Effects of dietary lipids on growth, fatty acid composition, intestinal absorption and hepatic storage in white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus R.) larvae". Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 18 (4–6): 673–681. Bibcode:2002JApIc..18..673G. doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0426.2002.00371.x .
  19. ↑ State of California. "Life History Conceptual Model for White Sturgeon". Data Portal. California Department of Fish and Wildlife.
  20. ↑ Chapman, F. A.; Van Eenennaam, J. P.; Doroshov, S. I. "The reproductive condition of white sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanus, in San Francisco Bay, California". Fishery Bulletin. 94: 628–634.
  21. ↑ Marineau, Mathieu D.; Wright, Scott A.; Whealdon-Haught, Daniel R.; Kinzel, Paul J. (2017). "Physical characteristics of the lower San Joaquin River, California, in relation to white sturgeon spawning habitat, 2011–14". Scientific Investigations Report. doi:10.3133/sir20175069.
  22. ↑ Coutant, Charles C. (2004). "A Riparian Habitat Hypothesis for Successful Reproduction of White Sturgeon". Reviews in Fisheries Science. 12 (1): 23–73. Bibcode:2004RvFS...12...23C. doi:10.1080/10641260490273023. S2CID   85121758.
  23. 1 2 [Israel, J., Drauch, A., Gingras, M. (2009). Life history conceptual model for white sturgeon. Unpubl. technical report to Bay Delta Ecosystem Restoration and Improvement Program, Sacramento, CA, USA, 54 pp.]
  24. ↑ "Raising Sturgeon". Sterling Caviar. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
  25. ↑ "About". Tsar Nicoulai Caviar. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
  26. ↑ Schreier, A.; Stephenson, S.; Rust, P.; Young, S. (2015). "The case of the endangered Kootenai River white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) highlights the importance of post-release genetic monitoring in captive and supportive breeding programs". Biological Conservation. 192: 74–81. Bibcode:2015BCons.192...74S. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2015.09.011. S2CID   83747659.
  27. ↑ "White Sturgeon Fishing in the Pacific Northwest: A Guide to Catch and Release Adventures". Opus Caviar. Retrieved 2024-11-17.
  28. ↑ Jelks, Howard L.; Walsh, Stephen J.; Burkhead, Noel M.; Contreras-Balderas, Salvador; Diaz-Pardo, Edmundo; Hendrickson, Dean A.; Lyons, John; Mandrak, Nicholas E.; McCormick, Frank; Nelson, Joseph S.; Platania, Steven P.; Porter, Brady A.; Renaud, Claude B.; Schmitter-Soto, Juan Jacobo; Taylor, Eric B.; Warren, Melvin L. (August 2008). "Conservation Status of Imperiled North American Freshwater and Diadromous Fishes" (PDF). Fisheries. 33 (8): 372–407. Bibcode:2008Fish...33..372J. doi:10.1577/1548-8446-33.8.372.
  29. ↑ How CITES works. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
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