Women's education in Saudi Arabia

Last updated

Saudi Arabia is a theocracy organized according to the principles of Islam, which puts emphasis on the importance of knowledge and education. In Islamic belief, obtaining knowledge is the only way to gain true understanding of life, and as such, both men and women are encouraged to study. [1] [2] Saudi Arabia is one of the G20 Economies [3] and has a $1 Trillion GDP. [4] In 2016, it launched one of the most significant programs globally - Vision 2030. [5] In 2021, women's college graduation rates exceeded those of men's. [6]

Contents

History

Girls at school 1960's/70's Classroom in Saudi arabia.jpg
Girls at school 1960's/70's

Girls' education in Saudi Arabia was not formally addressed by the government until 1959. [7] Women's education in Saudi Arabia was always thought of differently than that of men. The Quran teaches that the role of education for women is to serve as a guide on how to become the best wife they can be. This is due to the preconceived notion that women are meant to be mothers, nurturers, and housewives. [8] Before public schools for girls were opened, women born into wealthy families could access education via in-home tutoring. In 1941, the first private school for girls was opened by Indonesian and Malawian immigrants, called Madrasat AlBanat AlAhliah. [7] The first girls' public school was established in 1956 in Riyadh, called Dar Al Hanan. [9] A large portion of the Saudi Arabian population was opposed to the implementation of women's education policy; in September 1963, the government had to deploy officials to forcibly restrain citizens in Buraydah who were protesting girls' education. [9] According to Natana Delong-Bas, the suppression of women's education by contemporary Wahhabi regimes is due to their adherence to a specific interpretation of Wahhabi Islam. [1]

In 1955, Queen (Princess at the time) Effat, King Faisal's Wife, of Saudi Arabia established "Dar Al Hanan", the first school for girls in the country. In 1959, King Saud addressed the nation, started a public Girl Education program. [10] In 1960, "Kuliyat Al Banat" (The girl college) was launched, which was the first girl form of higher education in Saudi Arabia. [11] By 1961 there were 12 elementary schools for girls and by 1965 there were 160. By 1970, there were 357 and by 1975 there were 963, [12] and 1980 there were 1,810. [12] By 1981, the number of girls enrolled in public schools almost equaled the number of boys. [12]

In 2005, the Saudi government launched King Abdullah Scholarship Program (KASP), with over half of the scholarship beneficiaries being women. In 2015, 44,000 women had graduated from top universities in the US, East Asia, Europe, and more. [10] The scholarship provided full-board scholarships for women including a year-round ticket, monthly stipend, full tuition coverage, free private tutoring, and even a monthly stipend and yearly ticket for a male family relative to travel with all the women students. [10]

Until 2002, different departments regulated education for men and women. Women's education was controlled through the Department of Religious Guidance, while men's education was overseen by the Ministry of Education. The Department of Religious Guidance retained control of women's education to ensure that women were educated in accordance with the principles of Islam as interpreted in Saudi Arabia, which traditionally espoused that women take on 'gender appropriate' roles such as motherhood, housewifery, teaching, or nursing: [13] [14] "to bring her up in a proper Islamic way so as to perform her duty in life, be an ideal and successful housewife and a good mother, ready to do things which suit her nature as teaching, nursing, and medical treatment." [15]

Iffat bint Mohammad Al Thunayan was an activist and pioneer for women's education in Saudi Arabia. Queen Effat Al-Thunayan.jpg
Iffat bint Mohammad Al Thunayan was an activist and pioneer for women's education in Saudi Arabia.

The amalgamation of departments for men's and women's education came as the result of a disaster in Mecca in 2002, where a group of 15 elementary schoolgirls died as a result of a fire in their school. The religious police designated by the Department of Religious Guidance discouraged the firemen from entering the school or allowing the girls to flee to safety, as there was the chance their hijabs were not being worn properly. [16] It was discovered that women's education had received a lower budget than men's education, and thus girls' schools were outdated and unsafe which was a factor in the fatal fire. This led to public outrage, and in turn, the combination of men's and women's education departments into the Ministry of Education. [17] Again in 2014, a female student at King Saud University died after the religious police officers stopped paramedics from entering. [18]

The state of women's education in Saudi Arabia continues to evolve, but not without setbacks. In the Saudi Vision 2030 agenda, the Saudi government pledges to make adjustments that will improve women's education with plans to "invest in [women’s] productive capabilities and enable them to strengthen their future and contribute to the development of our society and economy." [19]

Obesity is a problem among middle and upper-class Saudis who have domestic servants to do traditional work but, until 2018, women were forbidden to drive and so they were limited in their ability to leave their home. [20] As of April 2014, Saudi authorities in the education ministry have been asked by the Shoura Council to consider lifting a state school ban on sports for girls with the proviso that any sports conform to Sharia rules on dress and gender segregation, according to the official SPA news agency. [21] The religious police, known as the mutawa, imposed many restrictions on women in public in Saudi Arabia. [22] [23] The restrictions include forcing women to sit in separate specially designated family sections in restaurants, to wear an abaya and to cover their hair. [22] However, in 2016, the Saudi cabinet has drastically reduced the power of the religious police and barred it "from pursuing, questioning, asking for identification, arresting and detaining anyone suspected of a crime", making them effectively "non-existent" in the public sphere anymore. [24]

A few Saudi women have risen to the top of the medical profession; for example, Ghada Al-Mutairi heads a medical research centre in California [25] and Salwa Al-Hazzaa is head of the ophthalmology department at King Faisal Specialist Hospital in Riyadh and was the late King Fahad's personal ophthalmologist. [26]

Segregation in social life

Post-secondary education

In 1964, the first four girls' intermediate schools were opened. [7] The first post-secondary education for girls was Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, established in 1970, which is also the largest women's university in the world. It was called Riyadh University for Women until 2008. [27] A women-only campus, the Centre for Girls' Studies, opened at King Saud University in 1976. [7] A girls' college was also established by King Faisal and his wife, Iffat, called Kulliyyat Al Banat. [14] There are currently 36 universities in Saudi Arabia that allow women to enroll, with a number of them being for women only. [28]

Mathematics class for Saudi Arabian girls in the 1960s Saudi arabian mathematics class.jpg
Mathematics class for Saudi Arabian girls in the 1960s

Within the education system, a guardian's permission is not required to enroll in schools and universities. However, as of February 2018, many private universities continued to require a guardian's signature as a condition for enrollment. In addition, husbands can withhold consent if women access scholarships to or travel for higher education abroad. [29]

Progress for equality in girls' and women's education has been made since the implementation of girls' schools in Saudi Arabia. While the men's literacy rate has always been statistically higher than that of women, the women's literacy rate has consistently increased over the past decades. In 1992, women in Saudi Arabia had an average literacy rate of 57.28%. In 2017, the literacy rate for women was 99.3%. [30] Statistics show an increase from 272,054 female enrolments in 1974–75 to 2,121,893 in 2004–05. [31]

Laws

In Saudi Arabia, officials may ask women for their male guardians' consent. This can happen even when no law or guideline requires such consent. Current practices assume women have no power to make their own decisions. This can have a huge impact on how women can receive education in Saudi Arabia. One example of how women are checked for guardian consent is in many airports, officials ask women of all ages for written proof that their guardian has allowed them to travel. Many women have to receive consent to travel, even for educational reasons. Although the government has taken some steps to limit the power of guardians, there is little evidence showing that officials are backing down from guardian consent. [32]

Consequences of educational segregation

Labor market segregation

Women in Saudi Arabia continue to be marginalized almost to the point of total exclusion from the Saudi workforce. Saudi Arabia has one of the lowest rates of working women in the world. [33] Women account for only 4% of the total workforce and 10.7% of the labor force. In recent years there has been an issue that has intensified the need for a larger labor force, and allowing women out of the home and into the economy. There has been integration of women in the workforce, but under religious customs, women continue to be secluded from men. [34] In Saudi Arabia, there are no female judges or prosecutors. The government enforces sex segregation in all workplaces with the exception of hospitals. If the government discovers unlawful mixing of the sexes, they are authorized to arrest the violators and bring them to the nearest police station where they can be criminally charged. The Saudi Labor Code does not include anything requiring sex segregation in the workplace. However, there is little evidence that this has in any way affected the current work environment. The issue of guardianship is introduced and employers in both the private and public sector require female staff to obtain the permission of a male guardian in order to be hired. When women reach working age, employers often do not ask for permission, although the government requires teachers to provide such permission. [32]

Political participation

Saudi Arabia is governed by sharia law. Sharia law is open to many interpretations, but it does not usually encourage women to hold prominent positions. In 2005 Saudi Arabia held its first nationwide elections. Women did not participate. They were not permitted to vote or run as candidates in the elections. [35] With the exclusion of political participation, Abdulaziz Al-Heis contends that women will not be able to participate and find a platform to have their voice heard for equality and other demands. There needs to be a push forward and renewal of institutions for religious ideas so the political economy can include both men and women. [36] Since 2015, women are allowed to vote and present themselves as candidates for the country's municipal elections.

Scholarships and Vision 2030

Scholarships in Saudi Arabia played a significant role in women Empowerment, as it prepared tens of thousands of women for the job market between the years of 2006 and 2012, which greatly contributed to increasing the level of education amongst Saudi women. [37] In 2023, Saudi Arabia's Women college graduation rates surpass those of males, being one of the highest globally. [6]

List of universities that enroll women

There are currently 36 universities in Saudi Arabia that allow women to enroll, with a number of them being for women only. [28]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Saudi Arabia</span>

The history of Saudi Arabia as a nation state began with the emergence of the Al Saud dynasty in central Arabia in 1727 and the subsequent establishment of the Emirate of Diriyah. Pre-Islamic Arabia, the territory that constitutes modern Saudi Arabia, was the site of several ancient cultures and civilizations; the prehistory of Saudi Arabia shows some of the earliest traces of human activity in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Riyadh</span> Capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia

Riyadh is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of the Riyadh Province and the centre of the Riyadh Governorate. The current form of the metropolis emerged as an offshoot of the eponymous walled town following the dismantling of its defensive fortifications in the 1950s, after which the city underwent several phases of expansion and urbanization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ibn Saud</span> Founder and first king of Saudi Arabia (r. 1932–1953)

Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman bin Faisal bin Turki bin Abdullah bin Mohammed bin Saud, known in the Western world mononymously as Ibn Saud, was an Arab political and religious leader who founded Saudi Arabia – the third Saudi state – and reigned as its first king from 23 September 1932 until his death in 1953. He had ruled parts of the kingdom since 1902, having previously been Emir, Sultan, and King of Nejd, and King of Hejaz.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Faisal of Saudi Arabia</span> King of Saudi Arabia from 1964 to 1975

Faisal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud was a Saudi Arabian statesman and diplomat who was King of Saudi Arabia from 2 November 1964 until his assassination in 1975. Before his ascension, he served as Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia from 9 November 1953 to 2 November 1964, and he was briefly regent to his half-brother King Saud in 1964. He was prime minister from 1954 to 1960 and from 1962 to 1975. Faisal was the third son of King Abdulaziz, the founder of modern Saudi Arabia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fahd of Saudi Arabia</span> King of Saudi Arabia from 1982 to 2005

Fahd bin Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman bin Faisal bin Turki bin Abdullah bin Mohammed bin Saud was King and Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia from 13 June 1982 until his death in 2005. Prior to his ascension, he was Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia from 1975 to 1982. He was the eighth son of King Abdulaziz, the founder of modern Saudi Arabia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Khalid of Saudi Arabia</span> King of Saudi Arabia from 1975 to 1982

Khalid bin Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman bin Faisal bin Turki bin Abdullah bin Mohammed bin Saud was the king and prime minister of Saudi Arabia from 25 March 1975 to his death in 1982. Before his ascension, he was the crown prince of Saudi Arabia. He was the fifth son of King Abdulaziz, the founder of modern Saudi Arabia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saud of Saudi Arabia</span> King of Saudi Arabia from 1953 to 1964

Saud bin Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman bin Faisal bin Turki bin Abdullah bin Mohammed bin Saud was King of Saudi Arabia from 9 November 1953 until his abdication on 2 November 1964. During his reign, he served as Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia from 1953 to 1954 and from 1960 to 1962. Prior to his accession, Saud was the country's crown prince from 11 May 1933 to 9 November 1953. He was the second son of King Abdulaziz, the founder of Saudi Arabia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abdul Rahman bin Faisal Al Saud (1850–1928)</span> Saudi monarch and the last Emir of Nejd (1850–1928)

Abdul Rahman bin Faisal Al Saud was the last emir of Nejd, reigning from 1875 to 1876 and from 1889 to 1891. He was the youngest son of Emir Faisal bin Turki bin Abdullah and the father of Abdulaziz, the founder of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sultan bin Abdulaziz</span> Saudi royal and politician (c. 1928–2011)

Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, called Sultan the Good in Saudi Arabia, was the Saudi defense minister from 1963 to 2011 and the Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia from 2005 until his death in October 2011.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in Saudi Arabia</span>

Islam is the state religion of Saudi Arabia. The kingdom is called the "home of Islam"; it was the birthplace of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who united and ruled the Arabian Peninsula. It is the location of the cities of Mecca and Medina, where Prophet Muhammad lived and died, and are now the two holiest cities of Islam. The kingdom attracts millions of Muslim Hajj pilgrims annually, and thousands of clerics and students who come from across the Muslim world to study. The official title of the King of Saudi Arabia is "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques"—the two being Al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina—which are considered the holiest in Islam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Muhammad bin Abdulaziz Al Saud</span> Saudi royal and politician (1910–1988)

Muhammad bin Abdulaziz Al Saud was the crown prince of Saudi Arabia from 1964 to 1965 and the nominal governor of Al Madinah Province from 1925 to 1954. He resigned as crown prince in order to pave the way for his brother Khalid bin Abdulaziz to become the heir apparent. Prince Muhammad was one of the wealthiest and most powerful members of the House of Saud. His advice was sought and deferred to in all matters by his brothers.

Mohammed bin Nawwaf Al Saud is a Saudi Arabian diplomat who served as the Saudi Arabian ambassador to Italy, Malta, the United Kingdom, and Ireland. He is a member of the Saudi ruling family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Unification of Saudi Arabia</span> Military and political campaign for the formation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

The Unification of Saudi Arabia was a military and political campaign in which the various tribes, sheikhdoms, city-states, emirates, and kingdoms of most of the central Arabian Peninsula were conquered by the House of Saud, or Al Saud. Unification started in 1902 and continued until 1932, when the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was proclaimed under the leadership of Abdulaziz, known in the West as Ibn Saud, creating what is sometimes referred to as the Third Saudi State, to differentiate it from the Emirate of Diriyah, the First Saudi State and the Emirate of Nejd, the Second Saudi State, also House of Saud states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Princess Nourah Bint Abdul Rahman University</span> Public womens university located in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, formerly Riyadh University for Women, is a public women's university in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. It is the largest women's university in the world. Established in 1970 during the reign of King Faisal bin Abdulalziz, it assumed its current name in 2008 when it was granted university status by King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz and is named after Noura bint Abdul Rahman, elder sister and adviser of King Abdulaziz ibn Saud and the eldest daughter of Abdul Rahman bin Faisal, the last emir of the Second Saudi State.

ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Laṭīf Āl ash-Shaykh was a scholar from Nejd in Arabia and was the grandfather of King Faisal. He was a descendant of Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al Wahhāb.

Noura bint Abdul Rahman Al Saud was the eldest daughter of Abdul Rahman bin Faisal, Emir of Nejd, and the elder sister and adviser of King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia. Madawi Al Rasheed argues that she is the first example of Saudi royal women who are introduced to support the view of a progressive royalty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Faisal bin Abdullah Al Saud (born 1950)</span> Saudi royal, businessman, and former government official (born 1950)

Faisal bin Abdullah Al Saud is a retired Saudi Arabian politician and businessman who served as the Saudi Arabian minister of education from 2009 to 2013 in the administration of King Abdullah, his maternal uncle and father-in-law. He is a member of the House of Saud.

Muhammad bin Saud Al Muqrin, also known as Ibn Saud, was the emir of Diriyah and is considered the founder of the First Saudi State and the Saud dynasty, named after his father, Saud bin Muhammad Al Muqrin. His reign lasted between 1727 and 1765.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ministry of Education (Saudi Arabia)</span> Executive department that regulates all forms of education in Saudi Arabia

The Ministry of Education(MoE) (Arabic: وزارة التعليم), known before 2003 as the Ministry of Knowledge and until 1953 as the Directorate of Knowledge, is a government ministry in Saudi Arabia that is responsible for regulating primary, secondary and higher education in the country. It was established in 1926 by King Abdulaziz ibn Saud in the Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz. Since the amalgamations of the General Presidency for Girls' Education (GPGE) in 2002 and the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) in 2015, it became the sole body which supervises all schools, universities and colleges in the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hafiz Wahba</span> Egypt-born Saudi government official (1889–1967)

Hafiz Wahba was a Saudi diplomat. Fuad Hamza and he were the first ambassadors of Saudi Arabia, the former in France and Hamza in the United Kingdom. In addition, they were among the advisers whom King Abdulaziz employed to improve the decision-making process of the state.

References

  1. 1 2 Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam . New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. p.  194.
  2. ↑ Hobday, Peter (1978). Saudi Arabia Today. London: The macmillan Press Ltd. p. 90.
  3. ↑ "G20", Wikipedia, 2023-12-01, retrieved 2023-12-04
  4. ↑ "Economy of Saudi Arabia", Wikipedia, 2023-11-08, retrieved 2023-12-04
  5. ↑ "Saudi Vision 2030". www.vision2030.gov.sa. Retrieved 2023-12-04.
  6. 1 2 Alhawsawi, Sajjadllah; Jawhar, Sabria Salama (2023-05-19). "Education, employment, and empowerment among Saudi women". Gender and Education. 35 (4): 401–419. doi: 10.1080/09540253.2023.2189917 . ISSN   0954-0253.
  7. 1 2 3 4 AL Rawaf, Haya Saad; Simmons, Cyril (January 1991). "The Education of Women in Saudi Arabia". Comparative Education. 27 (3): 287–295. doi:10.1080/0305006910270304. ISSN   0305-0068.
  8. ↑ Alsuwaida, Nouf (2016). "Women's Education In Saudi Arabia" (PDF). Journal of International Education Research – Fourth Quarter 2016. 12 (4). Retrieved 5 March 2024.
  9. 1 2 Lacey, Robert (2012), The Kingdom : [Arabia & the house of Sa'ud], David Case, Inc Blackstone Audio, [Ashland, OR]: Blackstone Audio, Inc, ISBN   978-1-4551-5511-8, OCLC   769185881 , retrieved 2023-04-02
  10. 1 2 3 al-Shayea, Khaled (2015-10-06). "Saudi students on scholarship: Achievements and challenges". www.newarab.com/. Retrieved 2023-12-15.
  11. ↑ Al Rawaf, Haya Saad; Simmons, Cyril (1991). "The Education of Women in Saudi Arabia". Comparative Education. 27 (3): 287–295. doi:10.1080/0305006910270304. JSTOR   3099298.
  12. 1 2 3 Al Rawaf, Haya Saad; Simmons, Cyril (1991). "The Education of Women in Saudi Arabia". Comparative Education. 27 (3): 287–295. doi:10.1080/0305006910270304. ISSN   0305-0068. JSTOR   3099298.
  13. ↑ Al-Hariri, Rafeda (January 1987). "Islam's Point of View on Women's Education in Saudi Arabia". Comparative Education. 23 (1): 51–57. doi:10.1080/0305006870230106. ISSN   0305-0068.
  14. 1 2 Hamdan, Amani (2017). "Saudi Arabia: Higher Education Reform since 2005 and the Implications for Women". Education in the Arab World: 197–216. doi:10.5040/9781474271035.ch-011. ISBN   9781474271035.
  15. ↑ Alireza, M (1987). "Women of Arabia". National Geographic. 172 (4): 423–453.
  16. ↑ Hamdan, Amani (2017). "Saudi Arabia: Higher Education Reform since 2005 and the Implications for Women". Education in the Arab World: 197–216. doi:10.5040/9781474271035.ch-011. ISBN   9781474271035.
  17. ↑ Prokop, Michaela (January 2003). "Saudi Arabia: The politics of education". International Affairs. 79 (1): 77–89. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.00296. ISSN   0020-5850.
  18. ↑ "Death of Saudi female student stirs uproar". 6 February 2014.
  19. ↑ "Saudi Vision 2030".
  20. ↑ Al-Eisa, Einas S.; Al-Sobayel, Hana I. (2012). "Physical Activity and Health Beliefs among Saudi Women". Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism. 2012: 642187. doi: 10.1155/2012/642187 . PMC   3317126 . PMID   22523673. the prevalence of sedentary lifestyle-related obesity has been escalating among Saudi females
  21. ↑ Economists "estimate only 30–40 percent of working-age Saudis hold jobs or actively seek work," the official employment rate of around 12 percent notwithstanding: McDowall, Angus (19 January 2014). "Saudi Arabia doubles private sector jobs in 30-month period". Reuters.
  22. 1 2 "2010 Human Rights Report: Saudi Arabia". U.S. State Department. 8 April 2011. Archived from the original on 12 April 2011. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
  23. ↑ Dammer, Harry R.; Albanese, Jay S. (2010). Comparative Criminal Justice Systems. Cengage Learning. p. 106. ISBN   978-0-495-80989-0.
  24. ↑ "Changing times for Saudi's once feared morality police". France 24. 2022-01-14. Retrieved 2022-07-17.
  25. ↑ "Saudi women rise up after years of absence". Alarabiya.net. 21 November 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
  26. ↑ "Professor Selwa Al-hazzaa". Selwaalhazzaa.com. 11 January 2013. Archived from the original on 28 September 2017. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
  27. ↑ "Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University". Times Higher Education (THE). 2023-03-16. Retrieved 2023-04-02.
  28. 1 2 "Top Universities in Saudi Arabia | 2021 Saudi Arabian University Ranking".
  29. ↑ "THEMATIC REPORT ON MUSLIM FAMILY LAW AND MUSLIM WOMEN’S RIGHTS IN SAUDI ARABIA". Musawah: For Equality in the Family. 69th CEDAW Session, Geneva, Switzerland; February 2018.
  30. ↑ "Saudi Arabia". uis.unesco.org. 2016-11-27. Retrieved 2023-04-02.
  31. ↑ AlMunajjed, Mona (2009). Women's Education In Saudi Arabia. USA: Booz&Company. p. 2.
  32. 1 2 Human Rights Watch, Perpetual Minors - Human Rights Abuses Stemming from Male Guardianship and Sex Segregation in Saudi Arabia, 20 April 2008, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/480c3dd72.html [accessed 22 March 2014]
  33. ↑ Samiuddin and Khanam (2002). Muslim Feminism and Feminist Movement. India: Global Vision Publishing House. pp. 48–49.
  34. ↑ Lackner, Helen (1978). A House Built on Sand - A political economy of Saudi Arabia. London: Ithaca Press. p. 208.
  35. ↑ Kramer, Ann (2007). Human Rights: who decides . Heinemann Library a division of Reed Elsevier Inc. Chicago Illinois. p.  28.
  36. ↑ Al-Heis, Abdulaziz. "Women Participat ion in Saudi Arabia's Political Arena" (PDF).
  37. ↑ "Scholarships Bring Record Number of Saudi Students to United States | NAFSA". www.nafsa.org. Retrieved 2023-11-26.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.