Women in Bangladesh

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Women in Bangladesh
Begum Rokeya.jpg
Begum Rokeya was a pioneer writer and a social worker of the undivided Bengal. She is most famous for her efforts in favour of gender equality and other social issues.
General Statistics
Maternal mortality  (per 100,000)176 (2015)
Women in parliament 20.3% (2018)
Women over 25 with secondary education 45.3% (2018)
Women in labour force36.0% (2018)
Gender Inequality Index [1]
Value0.530 (2021)
Rank131st out of 191
Global Gender Gap Index [2]
Value0.714 (2022)
Rank71st out of 146

The status of women in Bangladesh has been subject to many important changes over the past few centuries. Bangladeshi women have made significant progress since the country's independence in 1971, where women in the region experienced increased political empowerment for women, better job prospects, increased opportunities of education and the adoption of new laws to protect their rights through Bangladesh's policies in the last four decades. Still, women in Bangladesh continue to struggle to achieve equal status to men due to societal norms that enforce restrictive gender roles as well as poor implementation of laws that were set to protect women.

Contents

Under the leadership of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, Bangladesh has achieved remarkable success in promoting the rights of women. Her efforts in the realm of women's empowerment and gender equality are frequently regarded as a model for other nations. [3]

The Government of Bangladesh has mandated the reservation of at least 33% of all committee positions for women. [4] Within the Parliament, there is one whip, two chairpersons, and several members of standing committees who are women. Presently, the national parliament boasts 20 elected female representatives, and an additional 50 seats are exclusively reserved for women. Consequently, the total count of women serving as members of the National Parliament amounts to 70. [4]

In legal matters, Bangladesh follows a mixed system, predominantly of common law inherited from its colonial past as well as some Islamic laws that mostly concern personal status issues. Politically, women have been comparatively prominent in the sphere: since 1990s the Prime Ministers elected were women. To ensure the well-being and progress of women, the government has implemented and revised several laws, establishing institutions and formulating targeted policies. These efforts aim to safeguard women's interests and create an environment conducive to their empowerment. By introducing gender-sensitive policies and programs, the government strives to enable women to play a vital role in society and actively contribute to development as empowered agents. [5]

The budget allocated for gender-related initiatives in the fiscal year 2023-24 amounts to Tk175,350.5 crore. Out of this total, 58.4% is designated for empowering women and enhancing their social dignity, 33.5% is allocated for expanding women's access to public services, and 8.1% is dedicated to improving women's productivity and participation in the labor force. [6] Enhanced engagement of women in socio-economic and political endeavors has led to noteworthy advancements in gender parity across all sectors within Bangladesh. For the second consecutive year, Bangladesh has claimed the foremost position in gender equality among South Asian nations, as affirmed by the Gender Gap Index. Notably, the country has effectively bridged 73% of its comprehensive gender gap, as indicated by the Global Gender Gap Index of 2020. During the period spanning 1996 to 2017, the national female labor force participation rate escalated from 15.8% to 36.3%, surpassing the South Asian average of 35%. [7]

History

The extent to which women in the region in the past has varied over time, where the status of women varied between religious and ethnic groups, as well as across social classes.

Pre-Independence Era

Before the 20th century, women in this region, as well as in Bengal in general, experienced different levels of autonomy depending on where they lived. While women who lived in rural areas were able to roam around in groups and appear in public, those who lived in urban areas would have to observe purdah by covering up. Prevalent in both Hindu and Muslim families at the time, these middle-class and upper-class women were mostly homemakers who barely went outside; any occasional movement outside were done inside cloaked carriages. This was seen as a way to protect women from unknown dangers of urban areas by the patriarch of the house. However, purdah was not common among lower-class women. [8]

Polygamy was practiced in this region regardless of religion. Nevertheless, the practice was not common among the general populace and was more commonly observed in the aristocratic class; recent eras see a further decline in polygamous relationships. Historically, Sati was practiced in this region, mostly among the upper class, until the late 19th century.

Post-Independence Era

Available data on health, nutrition, education, and economic performance indicated that in the 1980s the status of women in Bangladesh remained considerably inferior to that of men. Women, in custom and practice, remained subordinate to men in almost all aspects of their lives; greater autonomy was the privilege of the rich or the necessity of the very poor.

Most women's lives remained centred on their traditional roles, and they had limited access to markets, productive services, education, health care, and local government. This lack of opportunities contributed to high fertility patterns, which diminished family well-being, contributed to the malnourishment and generally poor health of children, and frustrated educational and other national development goals. In fact, acute poverty at the margin appeared to be hitting hardest at women. As long as women's access to health care, education, and training remained limited, prospects for improved productivity among the female population remained poor.

About 82 percent of women lived in rural areas in the late 1980s. The majority of rural women, perhaps 70 percent, were in small cultivator, tenant, and landless households; many worked as labourers part-time or seasonally, usually in post-harvest activities, and received payment in kind or in meager cash wages. Another 20 percent, mostly in poor landless households, depended on casual labour, gleaning, begging, and other irregular sources of income; typically, their income was essential to household survival. The remaining 10 percent of women were in households mainly in the professional, trading, or large-scale landowning categories, and they usually did not work outside the home.

The economic contribution of women was substantial but largely unacknowledged. Women in rural areas were responsible for most of the post-harvest work, which was done in the chula, and for keeping livestock, poultry, and small gardens. Women in cities relied on domestic and traditional jobs, but in the 1980s they increasingly worked in manufacturing jobs, especially in the readymade garment industry. Those with more education worked in government, health care, and teaching, but their numbers remained very small. Continuing high rates of population growth and the declining availability of work based in the chula meant that more women sought employment outside the home. Accordingly, the female labour force participation rate doubled between 1974 and 1984, when it reached nearly 8 percent. Female wage rates in the 1980s were low, typically ranging between 20 and 30 percent of male wage rates.

In 2019 Bangladesh's highest court ruled that on marriage registration forms, a word used to describe unmarried women that can also mean "virgin" must be replaced with a word that only means "an unmarried woman". [9]

The official religion of Bangladesh is Islam and 90% of the population being Muslim. [10] [11]

Education and economic development

Education

Azimpur Girls' School in Bangladesh Azimpur Girls' School 1.JPG
Azimpur Girls' School in Bangladesh

The literacy rate in Bangladesh is lower for females (55.1%) compared to males (62.5%) – 2012 estimates for population aged 15 and over. [12]

During the past decades, Bangladesh has improved its education policies; and the access of girls to education has increased. In the 1990s, girls' enrolment in primary school has increased rapidly. Although there is now gender parity in enrolments at the primary and lower secondary school level, the percentage of girls drops in the later secondary school years. [13]

Workforce participation

Women in Bangladesh are engaged in many work activities, from domestic work inside the home, to outside paid work. Women's work are often undervalued and under-reported. [14] The Bangladeshi government has set aside a substantial annual budget of around $100 million to promote the advancement of women in various areas. In particular, the Readymade Garments (RMG) sector, which employs approximately 4 million women and plays a crucial role in the nation's economy, receives considerable attention. To further support women's entrepreneurial endeavors, Bangladesh Bank offers collateral-free loans, extending financial assistance to millions of aspiring women entrepreneurs. This dedicated focus on empowering women economically showcases the government's commitment to fostering gender equality and women's empowerment.[ citation needed ]

Land and property rights

Women's inheritance rights are poor: discriminatory laws and patriarchal social norms make it difficult for many women to have access to land. [15] Most women inherit according to the local interpretations of Sharia Law. [15]

Engagement in public life

Bangladesh has continuously had a female prime minister for 30 years. This is the longest unbroken tenure for a democratically elected female head of government in the world. 21% of MPs in the Jatiya Sangsad are women, the highest proportion in South Asia. [16] [17]

Crimes against women

Rape

Bengali settlers and soldiers in the Chittagong Hill Tracts have raped native Jumma (Chakma) women "with impunity" with the Bangladeshi security forces doing little to protect the Jummas and instead assisting the rapists and settlers. [18]

The indigenous Buddhist and Hindu Jummas of Sino-Tibetan background have been targeted by the Bangladeshi government with massive amounts of violence and genocidal policies as ethnic Bengali settlers swarmed into Jumma lands, seized control and massacred them with the Bangladeshi military engaging in mass rape of women, massacres of entire villages and attacks on Hindu and Buddhist religious sites with deliberate targeting of monks and nuns. [19]

Child marriage

Bangladesh has one of the highest rates of child marriage in the world. [20] The practice of dowry, although illegal, contributes to this phenomenon. [21] 29% of girls get married before age 15 and 65% before the age of 18. [22] Government action has had little effect, and has been contradictory: although the government has pledged to end child marriage by 2041, the Prime Minister in 2015 attempted to lower the age of marriage for girls from 18 to 16. [22] An exception to the law was instituted so that marriage at 16 is permitted with parental consent. [23]

Domestic violence

In 2010, Bangladesh enacted the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act, 2010. [24] Domestic violence (DV) is accepted by a significant percentage of the population: in the 2011 DHS survey, 32.5% of women said that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife for specific reasons (the most common reason given was if the wife "argues with him" – at 22.4%). [25] In recent years violence towards women, committed by men, has decreased significantly and is considerably low compared to south Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Nepal, and India. [26]

Dowry

Dowry violence is a problem in Bangladesh. The country has taken action against the practice of dowry through laws such as Dowry Prohibition Act, 1980; Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Ordinance, 1982; and Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Ordinance, 1986. However, abuses regarding dowry continue, with the legal enforcement against dowry being weak. [27]

Sexual harassment

"Eve teasing" is a euphemism used in South Asia for public sexual harassment (often known as "street harassment") of women by men. Examples include wolf-whistling, obscene gestures, threats of abduction, stalking, groping, and rubbing against women. [28] [29] Eve likely alludes to the first woman in the Biblical creation story. [30] As of 2010, according to the Bangladesh National Women Lawyers' Association, nearly 90% of Bangladeshi girls aged 10-18 had been subjected to eve teasing. [28] [31]

Other concerns

Freedom of movement

Bangladesh Railway female coach Female coach in Bangladesh Railway.jpg
Bangladesh Railway female coach

Some urban Bangladeshi women have freedom of movement because of their financial position and social class, but many others are afforded significantly less liberty. Historically, the patriarchal society restricted rural women to their homes. Freedom to travel has improved, but most women are still confined to their village. All women still need their husband's permission to visit public spaces. [32]

Health

The maternal mortality rate in Bangladesh is 240 deaths/100,000 live births (as of 2010). [33] Sexually transmitted infections are relatively common, [34] although the rate of HIV/AIDS is low. [35] A 2014 study found that Bangladeshi women' knowledge about different diseases is very poor. [36] Bangladesh has recently expanded training programs of midwives to improve reproductive health and outcomes. [37]

Family planning

Already in the 1990s, family planning was recognised as very important in Bangladesh. [38] The total fertility rate (TFR) is 2.45 children born/woman (estimates as of 2014). [39]

See also

Related Research Articles

A dowry is a payment, such as property or money, paid by the bride’s family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price and dower. While bride price or bride service is a payment by the groom, or his family, to the bride, or her family, dowry is the wealth transferred from the bride, or her family, to the groom, or his family. Similarly, dower is the property settled on the bride herself, by the groom at the time of marriage, and which remains under her ownership and control.

Gender equality, also known as sexual equality or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making, and the state of valuing different behaviors, aspirations, and needs equally, also regardless of gender.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in India</span>

The status of women in India has been subject to many changes over the time of recorded India's history. Their position in society deteriorated early in India's ancient period, especially in the Indo-Aryan speaking regions, and their subordination continued to be reified well into India's early modern period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Pakistan</span>

Women in Pakistan make up 48.76% of the population according to the 2017 census of Pakistan. Women in Pakistan have played an important role throughout Pakistan's history and they are allowed to vote in elections since 1956. In Pakistan, women have held high offices including that of the Prime Minister, Speaker of the National Assembly, Leader of the Opposition, as well as federal ministers, judges, and serving commissioned posts in the armed forces, with Lieutenant General Nigar Johar attaining the highest military post for a woman. Benazir Bhutto was sworn in as the first woman Prime Minister of Pakistan on 2 December 1988.

Dowry deaths are deaths of married women who are murdered or driven to suicide over disputes about dowry. Dowry deaths are found predominantly in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Iran. For context, dowry are the material exchange that the brides give the groom's side in the course of a wedding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violence against women</span> Violent acts committed primarily against women and girls

Violence against women (VAW), also known as gender-based violence and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), is violent acts primarily or exclusively committed by men or boys against women or girls. Such violence is often considered a form of hate crime, committed against women or girls specifically because they are female, and can take many forms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminism in India</span>

Feminism in India is a set of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and opportunities for women in India. It is the pursuit of women's rights within the society of India. Like their feminist counterparts all over the world, feminists in India seek gender equality: the right to work for equality in wages, the right to equal access to health and education, and equal political rights. Indian feminists also have fought against culture-specific issues within India's patriarchal society, such as inheritance laws.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Ghana</span>

The status of women in Ghana and their roles in Ghanaian society has changed over the past few decades. There has been a slow increase in the political participation of Ghanaian women throughout history. Women are given equal rights under the Constitution of Ghana, yet disparities in education, employment, and health for women remain prevalent. Additionally, women have much less access to resources than men in Ghana do. Ghanaian women in rural and urban areas face slightly different challenges. Throughout Ghana, female-headed households are increasing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Ethiopia</span>

There have been several studies concerning women in Ethiopia. Historically, elite and powerful women in Ethiopia have been visible as administrators and warriors. This never translated into any benefit to improve the rights of women, but it had meant that women could inherit and own property and act as advisors on important communal and tribal matters. As late as the first part of the 20th century, Queen Menen, consort of Emperor Haile Selassie I, had a decisive role in running the Ethiopian Empire. Workit and Mestayit regents to their minor sons have been held responsible for their provinces. They owed their rights to landed property because of a special type of land tenure that expected tenants to serve as militia to overlords, irrespective of gender. In 1896, Empress Tayetu Betul, wife of Emperor Menelik II, actively advised the government and participated in defending the country from Italian invasion. Prominent and other landowning women fought against the second invasion in 1935–41. With the assistance of European advisors, women in the ensuing period were kept out of the army and politics, even as advisors. Instead, they were restricted to family and household work of raising children and cooking. With a steady increase in female representation in education, they have started to undertake nursing, teaching, and other similarly supportive roles. Over the 2018–2019 period, their gradual participation in state politics has been increasing at a steady pace.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Nepal</span>

The status of women in Nepal has varied throughout history. In the early 1990s, like in some other Asian countries, women in Nepal were generally subordinate to men in virtually every aspect of life. Historically, Nepal has been a predominantly patriarchal society where women are generally subordinate to men. Men were considered to be the leader of the family and superior to women. Also, social norms and values were biased in favor of men. This strong bias in favor of sons in society meant that daughters were discriminated against from birth and did not have equal opportunities to achieve all aspects of development. Daughters were deprived of many privileges, including rights, education, healthcare, parental property rights, social status, last rites of dead parents, and were thought to be other's property and liabilities. In the past century, there has been a dramatic positive change in the role and status of women in Nepal, reducing gender inequality. While the 1990 Constitution guaranteed fundamental rights to all citizens without discrimination on the basis of ethnicity, caste, religion, or sex, the modernization of society, along with increased education of the general population, have also played an important role in promoting gender equality. The roles of women have changed in various ways in the modern Nepalese society.

Gender inequality in India refers to health, education, economic and political inequalities between men and women in India. Various international gender inequality indices rank India differently on each of these factors, as well as on a composite basis, and these indices are controversial.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Mali</span>

The status and social roles of women in Mali have been formed by the complex interplay of a variety of traditions in ethnic communities, the rise and fall of the great Sahelien states, French colonial rule, independence, urbanisation, and postcolonial conflict and progress. Forming just less than half Mali's population, Malian women have sometimes been the center of matrilineal societies, but have always been crucial to the economic and social structure of this largely rural, agricultural society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in India</span>

Domestic violence in India includes any form of violence suffered by a person from a biological relative but typically is the violence suffered by a woman by male members of her family or relatives. Although Men also suffer Domestic violence, the law under IPC 498A specifically protects only women. Specifically only a woman can file a case of domestic violence. According to a National Family and Health Survey in 2005, total lifetime prevalence of domestic violence was 33.5% and 8.5% for sexual violence among women aged 15–49. A 2014 study in The Lancet reports that although the reported sexual violence rate in India is among the lowest in the world, the large population of India means that the violence affects 27.5 million women over their lifetimes. However, an opinion survey among experts carried out by the Thomson Reuters Foundation ranked India as the most dangerous country in the world for women.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Benin</span>

Women in Benin have gained more rights since the restoration of democracy and the ratification of the Constitution, and the passage of the Personal and Family Code in 2004. These both overrode various traditional customs that systematically treated women unequally. Still, inequality and discrimination persist. "Girls from the age of five or so are actively involved in housekeeping, sibling care, and agriculture." Society could think about of a woman's role are a housemaid, caretaker, or babysitter. A woman's role is to be a housemaker and nothing at all, but women have much potential to be more than a housemaker. With laws taking charge of what a woman can be as a career of how they are being useful more in the house than in a men's job position. Moreover, these rules apply to women by their gender that has not changed for a while. And there has been inequality based on being the opposite gender which these rules should immediately change if the society wants to get better to have equality for the female race.

Nepal, a Himalayan country situated in South Asia, is one of the poorer countries because of undeveloped resources. It has suffered from political instability and has had undemocratic rule for much of its history. There is a lack of access to basic facilities, people have superstitious beliefs, and there are high levels of gender discrimination. Although the Constitution provides for the protection of women, including equal pay for equal work, the Government has not taken significant action to implement its provisions.

Gender inequality has been improving a lot in Bangladesh, inequalities in areas such as education and employment remain ongoing problems so women have little political freedom. In 2015, Bangladesh was ranked 139 out of 187 countries on the Human Development Index and 47 out 144 countries surveyed on the Gender Inequality Index in 2017. Many of the inequalities are result of extreme poverty and traditional gender norms centred on a patrilineal and patriarchal kinship system in rural areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender inequality in Sri Lanka</span>

Gender inequality in Sri Lanka is centered on the inequalities that arise between men and women in Sri Lanka. Specifically, these inequalities affect many aspects of women's lives, starting with sex-selective abortions and male preferences, then education and schooling in childhood, which influence job opportunities, property rights, access to health and political participation in adulthood. While Sri Lanka is ranked well on several gender equality indices in comparison to other countries in the region, there are also some sources that question the verity of these indices. However, globally, Sri Lanka ranks relatively lower on gender equality indices. Overall, this pattern of social history that disempowers females produces a cycle of undervaluing females, providing only secondary access to health care and schooling and thus fewer opportunities to take on high level jobs or training, which then exacerbates the issue of low political participation and lowered social rights, a cycle studied and noted on by Dr. Elaine Enarson, a disaster sociologist studying the connection between disaster and the role of women.

Gender inequality in Nepal refers to disparities and inequalities between men and women in Nepal, a landlocked country in South Asia. Gender inequality is defined as unequal treatment and opportunities due to perceived differences based solely on issues of gender. Gender inequality is a major barrier for human development worldwide as gender is a determinant for the basis of discrimination in various spheres such as health, education, political representation, and labor markets. Although Nepal is modernizing and gender roles are changing, the traditionally patriarchal society creates systematic barriers to gender equality.

Examples of Gender inequality Papua New Guinea includes poverty, violence, limited access to education and health care, and witch hunts. Cases of violence against women in PNG are under reported. There is also a lack of services for women who experience violence. There are reports of sexual abuse by police officers, on arrest and whilst in police custody. These incidents lack documentation or investigation, consequently, perpetrators are rarely prosecuted or punished. The government of Papua New Guinea (PNG) has introduced legislation to combat these issues, though with limited success.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Child marriage in South Sudan</span>

Child marriage is a marriage or union between a child under the age of 18 to another child or to an adult. Child marriage is common in a multitude of African countries. In South Sudan, child marriage is a growing epidemic. Child marriage in South Sudan is driven by socioeconomic factors such as poverty and gender inequality. Current figures state that South Sudan is one of the leading countries in the world when it comes to child marriage. Child marriage has negative consequences for children, including health problems and lower education rates for South Sudanese girls. Many initiatives have been taken to combat child marriage in South Sudan, but the presence of societal norms and instability continues to drive its presence in the nation.

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