Poverty in Bangladesh

Last updated

Bangladesh is an under-devoloped nation. Despite rapid economic growth, poverty remains a major issue. However, poverty has declined sharply in recent history. Shortly after its independence, approximately 90% of the population lived under the poverty line. [1] However, since economic reforms and trade liberalization of early 1990s, along with accelerated economic growth since early-2000s, Bangladesh have experienced a dramatic progress in reducing poverty. The remarkable progress in poverty alleviation has been recognized by international institutions. [2] According to World Bank, more than 33 million Bangladeshi people have been lifted out of poverty since 2000; as measured by the percentage of people living on the equivalent of US$1.90 or less per day in 2011 purchasing price parity terms. [3] [4]

Contents

Since early-2000s, rapid economic growth has fueled a remarkable increase in per-capita income. Bangladesh's per capita has increased almost threefold between 2010 and 2020, from under $700 [5] to $2,068, [6] (the highest GDP per capita in South Asia) moving Bangladesh into the ranks of middle-income economy. At current growth, Bangladesh is projected to enter upper-middle income status by 2041. Based on the current rate of poverty reduction, Bangladesh is projected to eliminate extreme poverty by 2021, the first country in South Asia to do so. [7] [8] [9] [10] Bangladesh has exhibited remarkable accomplishments in diverse spheres, encompassing poverty reduction, ensuring food security, enhancing primary education, reducing mortality ratios, expanding immunization coverage, and effectively addressing communicable diseases. [11]

General overview of Bangladesh

Bangladesh's economic reform started with the implementation of investment friendly economic policies, privatization of public industries, budgetary discipline, and liberalization of trade were among the key elements behind acceleration of Bangladesh's economy. Since then, Bangladesh has been among the fastest growing economies in the world, exceeding 6 percent growth annually between 2004 and 2015. The GDP growth further accelerated exceeding 7 percent mark since then, and is projected to gradually exceed 10 percent growth until 2020.

Among Bangladesh's many economic and social achievements, dramatic reduction in poverty in often considered a phenomenon among international organizations such as IMF and The World Bank. Between 1972 and 2018, Bangladesh's population living on less than $1.90/day is estimated to have fallen from 90% to 9%. Between 2008 and 2018, The per capita income in the country increased 149%. [12]

As of 2020, female labor force participation rate stands at 50%, while net female school enrollment rate stands at a staggering 98%. [13] [14] World Economic Forum ranks Bangladesh as the most gender-equal nation in South Asia (ranked 47th, followed by Maldives 106th; India 108th).

Bangladesh National Poverty Line

Percentage of population living below the NATIONAL POVERTY LINE in Bangladesh
Poverty in Bangladesh

Source: World Bank and Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) [15]

Poverty rate by division

Percent of population living on less than $2.15, $3.65 and $6.85 a day, international dollars (2017 PPP) as per the World Bank. [16]

Percent of population living on less than poverty thresholds
Division$2.15$3.65$6.85Year
Barisal 15.2%58.5%92.7%2016
Chittagong 5.5%37.4%84.2%2016
Dhaka 6.5%33.9%76.2%2016
Khulna 16.5%65.1%93.1%2016
Rajshahi 17.8%63.5%91.9%2016
Rangpur 35.4%77.7%95.2%2016
Sylhet 13.2%57.7%90.4%2016
Flag of Bangladesh.svg  Bangladesh 13.5%51.6%86.9%2016

Rural and urban poverty

Strong national poverty reduction, masks differences in welfare trends between rural and urban Bangladesh. The national poverty rate fell in both rural and urban areas, but the speed of reduction was much slower in urban Bangladesh, largely because of slower rates of poverty reduction in Dhaka and increasing poverty in Chittagong. There was no progress in reducing extreme poverty in urban areas: the proportion of the urban population living in extreme poverty was 7.7 percent in 2010 and 7.6 percent in 2016. Given that Bangladesh continued to urbanize during this time, there are now more people living in extreme poverty in urban Bangladesh (3.3 million) than in 2010 (3 million). [17] Since independence the average rate of urbanization in Bangladesh is 5% [18] (World Bank 2012) & percentage share of urban population has doubled, from 15% in 1974 to 28.4% in 2011.

Rural poverty

Many people live in remote areas that lack services such as education, health clinics, and adequate roads, particularly road links to markets.[ citation needed ] An estimated 35 percent of the population in rural areas lives below the poverty line. [19] They suffer from persistent food insecurity, own no land and assets, are often uneducated, and may also suffer serious illnesses or disabilities.[ citation needed ] Another 29 percent of the rural population is considered moderately poor.[ citation needed ] Though they may own a small plot of land and some livestock and generally have enough to eat, their diets lack nutritional value.[ citation needed ] As a result of health problems or natural disasters, they are at risk of sliding deeper into poverty.[ citation needed ] Women are among the poorest of the rural poor, especially when they are the sole heads of their households.[ citation needed ] They suffer from discrimination and have few earning opportunities, and their nutritional intake is often inadequate.[ citation needed ]

Urban poverty

An estimated 21 percent of the population in urban areas lives below the poverty line. [19] People living in urban areas, like Sylhet, Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, and Rajshahi, enjoy a better standard of living, with electricity, gas, and clean water supplies. [20] Even in the major cities, however, "a significant proportion of Bangladeshis live in squalor in dwellings that fall apart during the monsoon season and have no regular electricity. These Bangladeshis have limited access to health care and to clean drinking water." [20]

Urban poverty in Bangladesh remains notably large, with nearly 19 percent of the urban population grappling with economic hardship. This figure, both in absolute terms and concerning the broader South Asian context, stands out as high—second only to Afghanistan in the realm of urban poverty rates (Ellis and Roberts 2015). [21] Urban households confront an array of vulnerabilities, making them prone to regress into poverty or face further entrenchment. These vulnerabilities encompass substandard housing, precarious living conditions, and limited access to basic services such as education, electricity, health, and nutrition. The collective impact of these vulnerabilities manifests in urban areas, where the prevalence of severe stunting among children under the age of 5 is 8 percentage points higher compared to rural regions. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of mechanisms enabling households to effectively mitigate risks or cope with the aftermath of various shocks. [22]

Causes of rural and urban poverty

One of the biggest cause of rural poverty is due to the fast-growing population rate. It places huge pressure on the environment, causing problems such as erosion and flooding, which in turn leads to low agricultural productivity.

The causes of urban poverty are due to the limited employment opportunities, degraded environment, bad housing and sanitation. The urban poor hold jobs that are labour demanding, thus affecting their health conditions. Therefore, the urban poor are in a difficult situation to escape poverty. [23]


Recent population growth has contributed to an escalating poverty rate in Bangladesh, with the country experiencing a yearly increase of 1 million people. [24] Roughly two-thirds of Bangladesh's land lies at an elevation of five meters or less, exposing over 165 million people to the risks of natural disasters like cyclones, floods, earthquakes, and landslides. The resulting environmental conflicts significantly impact the country's economic conditions, with close to $6.5 billion lost annually due to environmental degradation, equivalent to 3.4 percent of Bangladesh's GDP. [25] Air and water pollution are major contributors to the country's health challenges, causing nearly 28 percent of deaths. According to the Environmental Performance Index (EPI) report, Bangladesh ranks 162nd out of 180 as one of the most polluted countries. [26]

Over the past two decades, Bangladesh has consistently held the seventh position globally in vulnerability to extreme weather events, as indicated by the Global Climate Risk Index. The sea level rise in the upcoming years could result in the displacement of an estimated 15 to 30 million Bangladeshis from coastal areas. A U.S. government report in 2018 highlighted that 90 million, equivalent to 56 percent of the population, live in regions characterized by "high climate exposure," with 53 million experiencing "very high" exposure. The 2021 Children's Climate Risk Index from the United Nations Children’s Fund characterizes the climate risk for children in Bangladesh as "extremely high," signifying the most severe rating on the index. [27]

Environmental problems and poverty

With 80% of the country situated on the flood plains of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna and those of several other minor rivers, the country is prone to severe flooding.

While some flooding is beneficial to agriculture, high levels of flooding have been found to be a retardant on agricultural growth. [28] On average, 16% of household income per year is lost due to flooding, with roughly 89% of the loss in property and assets. Of these, households engaged in farming and fishing suffer a greater loss relative to income. [29]

A positive relationship exists between flood risk and poverty as measured by household income, with people living under the poverty threshold facing a higher risk of flooding, as measured by their proximity to rivers and flood depth. [29] Property prices also tend to be lower the higher the risk of flooding, [30] making it more likely that someone who lives in a flood-prone area is poor and vice versa, as they might not be able to afford safer accommodation. Also, they tend to depend solely or largely on crop cultivation and fisheries for their livelihood and thus are harder hit by floods relative to their income.

Important to the finances of farmers operating small farms is their self-sufficiency in rice and floods adversely affect this factor, destroying harvests and arable land. Farmers hit are often forced to undertake distressed land selling [31] and in doing so, risk being pushed into or deeper into poverty. In areas hard hit by floods, especially disaster floods such as the 1988 flood, several researchers have found that many of the affected households have resorted to selling off assets such as land and livestock to mitigate losses. [32] [33]

Also, in an area hard-hit by poverty and prone to floods, it was found that many of the poor were unwilling to pay for flood protection. The main reason cited had been lack of financial resources although it was found that many of these people are willing to substitute non-financial means of payment such as labour, harvest or part of their land [33]

The above is problematic as it creates a vicious cycle for the poor of Bangladesh. Because the poor may not be able to afford safer housing, they have to live near the river which raises their risk of flooding. This would result in greater damage suffered from the floods, driving the poor into selling assets and pushing them further into poverty. They would be further deprived of sufficient resources needed to prevent extensive damage from flooding, resulting in even more flood damage and poverty. It then becomes even harder to escape this cycle. Even those farmers slightly above the poverty line are but just one bad flood away from the ranks of the poor.

Government Actions to Reduce Poverty

The Bengali government put out economic programs and reforms in the late 1900s to reduce the poverty levels, however the poverty levels have decreased by less than half a percent in 2017 to 2019 in comparison to the steady 1 percent decrease in poverty the years before. [34] As of February 2020, poverty was in fact increasing in several countries, while many others were already off track to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 1. One significant drawback in the government's economic policies and programs aimed at poverty alleviation is their exclusive focus on lifting people out of extreme poverty to surpass the poverty line. There is a notable absence of support to ensure that people not only escape poverty but also sustain their economic status while building resilience against potential future challenges such as climate-related issues, diseases, and economic shocks. One promising concept, the Graduation approach, is a time-bound series of interventions designed to address the various factors contributing to extreme poverty. This method, extensively studied and commonly employed, offers a systematic way to break free from the poverty cycle and gradually transition into a financially sustainable job. Despite receiving significant help from organizations such as the IDA and the World Bank’s funding and support, the economic sustainability will not last long nor be as effective, indicating a need for approaches such as the “big push” economic method in order to reestablish sufficiency. [35]

Implications of poverty in Bangladesh

The Gross national income (GNI) per capita measured in 2008 prices is a staggering low of US$520 while GNI Purchasing Power Parity per capita is US$1440 (2008). [36] This is a dismal figure when compared to other developed economies. Even though the poverty rate in Bangladesh has been decreasing, it is doing so at a slow rate of less than 2% per year. [37] Poverty matters because it affects many factors of growth – education, population growth rates, health of the workforce and public policy. Poverty is most concentrated in the rural areas of Bangladesh, hence creating disparities between the rural and urban areas. However, urban poverty remains a problem too.

In particular, poverty has been linked strongly to education and employment. Research papers published by the Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) have shown that poverty acts as both a cause and effect of a lack of education, which in turn adversely affects employment opportunities. Having an unskilled workforce also greatly decreases the productivity of the workforce which decreases the appeal of Foreign Direct Investments (FDIs) and thus impedes sustainable economic growth. In essence, education is an important contribution to the social and economic development of a country.

Secondly, rising landlessness is also a consequence of poverty in Bangladesh. In the year 2000, among the poorest 20 percent of the population – four out of five owned less than half an acre of land. Not only did many own no acreage at all, but landlessness has been increasing in rural Bangladesh along with the number of small and marginal farms. [38] The 2000 HIES found nearly half (48 percent) of the country's rural population to be effectively landless, owning at most 0.05 acres. Roughly three-fifths of all households in the two poorest quintiles fell into that category.

Lastly, for the chronic poor, issues such as food security and health hamper social mobility. According to a study done by the World Bank on Dhaka, the poor suffers from a lack of proper healthcare in their areas due to the expensive and poor quality health care services. [39] The poverty stricken areas either do not have the available facilities, or can only afford low quality healthcare. This is a problem that is common in both the rural and urban poor. For the urban poor, the problem has worsened as they can only afford to stay in slums where there are problems of overcrowding and unhygienic living conditions. These two factors results in the spread of diseases amongst the poor whom cannot afford better healthcare. Also, one cannot deny that a healthy and well-fed citizen is better suited for increased productivity as part of the workforce. Thus, poverty matters because it consequences the social welfare of citizens. Finance minister AHM Mustafa Kamal on Sunday said Bangladesh will be a hunger and poverty free country within the next decade, reports UNB. [40]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Economy of Guatemala</span>

The economy of Guatemala is a considered a developing economy, highly dependent on agriculture, particularly on traditional crops such as coffee, sugar, and bananas. Guatemala's GDP per capita is roughly one-third of Brazil's. The Guatemalan economy is the largest in Central America. It grew 3.3 percent on average from 2015 to 2018. However, Guatemala remains one of the poorest countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, having highly unequal incomes and chronically malnourished children. The country is beset by political insecurity, and lacks skilled workers and infrastructure. It depends on remittances for nearly one-tenth of the GDP.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poverty in India</span>

Poverty in India remains a major challenge despite overall reductions in the last several decades as its economy grows. According to an International Monetary Fund paper, extreme poverty, defined by the World Bank as living on US$1.9 or less in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms, in India was as low as 0.8% in 2019, and the country managed to keep it at that level in 2020 despite the unprecedented COVID-19 outbreak. According to World Bank, extreme poverty has reduced by 12.3% between 2011 and 2019 from 22.5% in 2011 to 10.2% in 2019. A working paper of the bank said rural poverty declined from 26.3% in 2011 to 11.6% in 2019. The decline in urban areas was from 14.2% to 6.3% in the same period.The poverty level in rural and urban areas went down by 14.7 and 7.9 percentage points, respectively. According to United Nations Development Programme administrator Achim Steiner, India lifted 271 million people out of extreme poverty in a 10-year time period from 2005–2006 to 2015–2016. A 2020 study from the World Economic Forum found "Some 220 million Indians sustained on an expenditure level of less than Rs 32 / day—the poverty line for rural India—by the last headcount of the poor in India in 2013."

Poverty in Pakistan has been recorded by the World Bank at 39.3% using the lower middle-income poverty rate of US$3.2 per day for the fiscal year 2020–21. In September 2021, the government stated that 22% percent of its population lives below the national poverty line set at Rs. 3030 (US$10) per month.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Measuring poverty</span> Overview about the measure of poverty

Poverty is measured in different ways by different bodies, both governmental and nongovernmental. Measurements can be absolute, which references a single standard, or relative, which is dependent on context. Poverty is widely understood to be multidimensional, comprising social, natural and economic factors situated within wider socio-political processes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poverty in China</span> Economic issues in China

In China today, poverty refers mainly to the rural poor. Decades of economic development has reduced urban extreme poverty. According to the World Bank, more than 850 million Chinese people have been lifted out of extreme poverty; China's poverty rate fell from 88 percent in 1981 to 0.7 percent in 2015, as measured by the percentage of people living on the equivalent of US$1.90 or less per day in 2011 purchasing price parity terms, which still stands in 2022.

Poverty in South America is prevalent in most of its countries. Those that have the highest rates of poverty per population are Suriname, Bolivia and Venezuela. Recent political shifts in the region have led to improvements in some of these countries. In general, most South American economies have attempted to tackle poverty with stronger economic regulations, foreign direct investments and implementation of microeconomic policies to reduce poverty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rural poverty</span> Poverty in rural areas, which are often less developed than urban areas worldwide

Rural poverty refers to situations where people living in non-urban regions are in a state or condition of lacking the financial resources and essentials for living. It takes account of factors of rural society, rural economy, and political systems that give rise to the marginalization and economic disadvantage found there. Rural areas, because of their small, spread-out populations, typically have less well maintained infrastructure and a harder time accessing markets, which tend to be concentrated in population centers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Causes of poverty</span>

The causes of poverty may vary with respect to nation, region, and in comparison with other countries at the global level. Yet, there is a commonality amongst these causes. Philosophical perspectives, and especially historical perspectives, including some factors at a micro and macro level can be considered in understanding these causes.

Moldova is considered one of the poorest countries in Europe despite substantial progress. According to the UN Development Program's 2016 report, 9.6% of the population was living in absolute national poverty and the World Bank reports that 0.2% and 0.1% of the population live at $1.90 a day in 2016 and 2017 respectively. Furthermore, the percentage of the population that was living below the national poverty line was 30.2 in 2006 and 9.6 in 2015. In 2012, Moldova received 0.004 as its Multidimensional poverty index (MPI).

Nigeria had one of the world's highest economic growth rates, averaging 7.4% according to the Nigeria economic report that was released in July 2019 by the World Bank. Following the oil price collapse in 2014–2016, combined with negative production shocks, the gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate dropped to 2.7% in 2015. In 2016 during its first recession in 25 years, the economy contracted by 1.6%. Nationally, 43 percent of Nigerians live below the poverty line, while another 25 percent are vulnerable. For a country with massive wealth and a huge population to support commerce, a well-developed economy, and plenty of natural resources such as oil, the level of poverty remains unacceptable. However, poverty may have been overestimated due to the lack of information on the extremely huge informal sector of the economy, estimated at around 60% more, of the current GDP figures. As of 2018, the population growth rate is higher than the economic growth rate, leading to a slow rise in poverty. According to a 2018 report by the World Bank, almost half the population is living below the international poverty line, and unemployment peaked at 23.1%.

Poverty reduction in Guatemala remains as one of the key challenges to be dealt with before a more balanced and socially inclusive economic growth could be achieved.

It is estimated that 64 percent of the Mozambique population is food insecure. The prevalence is higher in the southern region. Mozambique net importer of food. Total annual cereal import requirements average 0.89 million tons. Mozambique must also import substantial quantities of meat and livestock products.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Bangladesh</span> Emissions, effects and responses of Bangladesh related to climate change

Climate change is a critical issue in Bangladesh as the country is one of the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. In the 2020 edition of Germanwatch's Climate Risk Index, it ranked seventh in the list of countries most affected by climate calamities during the period 1999–2018. Bangladesh's vulnerability to the effects of climate change is due to a combination of geographical factors, such as its flat, low-lying, and delta-exposed topography, and socio-economic factors, including its high population density, levels of poverty, and dependence on agriculture. The impacts and potential threats include sea level rise, temperature rise, food crises, droughts, floods, and cyclones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poverty in the Philippines</span>

In 2021, official government statistics reported that the Philippines had a poverty rate of 18.1%,, significantly lower than the 49.2 percent recorded in 1985 through years of government poverty reduction efforts. From 2018 to 2021, an estimated 2.3 million Filipinos fell into poverty amid the economic recession caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poverty in Vietnam</span> Overview of poverty in Vietnam

Until the 1920s, most of the Vietnamese population lived under the poverty line. This was due to a number of reasons, which was a result from years as a French colony, the Japanese occupation of Vietnam, the Vietnam-American War, and further conflicts within Mainland Southeast Asia. Continuous conflicts from 1887 to 1991, more than 100 years of instability had left Vietnam a war-torn country that was prone severe floods from typhoons, rising sea levels, as well as the so-called "flood season" from seasonal monsoons, as well as the effects of climate change.

Tanzania has a current population of 55.57 million people. Current statistics form the World Bank show that in 2011, 49.1% of Tanzanians lived below US$1.90 per day. This figure is an improvement over 2007's report indicating a poverty rate of 55.1%. Tanzania has seen annual GDP gains of 7% since 2010 and this economic growth is attributed to this positive trends for poverty alleviation in Tanzania. The 2019 World Bank report showed that in the last 10 years, poverty has reduced by 8 percent, from 34.4% in 2007 to 26.4% in 2018.

Extreme poverty is defined as living on less than US$2.50 purchasing power parity. Uganda has made significant progress in eradicating poverty and achieved the first millennium development goal of halving the number of people in extreme poverty. Uganda was listed as the 9th most successful country in Africa as regards poverty eradication. The percentage of Ugandans living in absolute poverty has been on a substantial decline, and the finance ministry in the country projected that the extreme poverty level will be reduced to 10% in the future. This success has been attributed to the deliberate efforts to combat poverty in the country by numerous national strategies that are explained below.

Cambodia remains on the list of developing countries, despite recent economic growth. Although Cambodia is undergoing significant urbanization. Cambodia has made progress in combating poverty, and many citizens have risen just above the poverty line

Kenya is a upper-middle income economy as of 2024, with kenya's GDP 2024 hitting [[204.6B $]]. This is Due to increasing technology innovation Services. Although Kenya's economy is the largest and most developed in eastern and Central Africa, 16.1% (2023/2024) of its population lives below the international poverty line. This severe poverty is mainly caused by economic inequality, government corruption and health problems. In turn, poverty also worsens these factors. The Kenyan government's efforts to address poverty have received help from international institutions as well. The incident rate of poverty has steadily decreased, as shown by a recent MPI index.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable Development Goal 1</span> First of 17 Sustainable Development Goals to end global poverty

Sustainable Development Goal 1, one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2015, calls for the end of poverty in all forms. The official wording is: "No Poverty". Member countries have pledged to "Leave No One Behind": underlying the goal is a "powerful commitment to leave no one behind and to reach those farthest behind first".

References

  1. ↑ "Poverty Alleviation Program – SAWAB – A Non Government Organization of Bangladesh" . Retrieved 9 February 2020.
  2. ↑ "Learning from Bangladesh's journey toward ending poverty".
  3. ↑ Hill, Ruth; Genoni, Maria Eugenia (31 October 2019). "Bangladesh Poverty Assessment : Facing Old and New Frontiers in Poverty Reduction". The World Bank. pp. 1–83.
  4. ↑ "Bangladesh Continues to Reduce Poverty But at Slower Pace". World Bank. The World Bank. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  5. ↑ "GDP per capita (current US$) - Bangladesh | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
  6. ↑ "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund . Retrieved 16 October 2019.
  7. ↑ Chaudhury, Dipanjan Roy (3 November 2018). "At current pace, Bangladesh to end extreme poverty by 2021". The Economic Times. Retrieved 6 November 2018.
  8. ↑ Misha, Farzana; Sulaiman, Munshi. "Bangladesh Priorities: Poverty, Sulaiman and Misha | Copenhagen Consensus Center". www.copenhagenconsensus.com. Copenhagen Consensus. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
  9. ↑ "Bangladesh Can Overcome Extreme Poverty through More Inclusive Growth".
  10. ↑ Kopf, Dan (29 May 2017). "Bangladesh's rapid growth is one of the world's happiest economic stories". qz.com. Quartz. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  11. ↑ "What milestones have Bangladesh crossed in 50 years". Centre for Research and Information. 26 March 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
  12. ↑ "Per capita income increases by 149% in 10 years". Dhaka Tribune. 25 September 2018. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
  13. ↑ "Women's participation in the job market". The Daily Star. 8 March 2018. Retrieved 6 November 2018.
  14. ↑ "BBS labor force survey 2016-17: Female labour force growth dwarfs males". Dhaka Tribune. 20 March 2018. Retrieved 6 November 2018.
  15. ↑ World Bank (2024). "Percentage of population living below the national poverty line in Bangladesh". databank.worldbank.org. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
  16. ↑ "Geospatial Poverty Portal: Interactive Maps". World Bank. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
  17. ↑ World Bank. "Bangladesh Development Update" (PDF). The World Bank. p. 23. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
  18. ↑ Sarder Syed Ahmed; Muntasir Ahmed. "Urbanization and Economic Development of Bangladesh: The Primacy of Dhaka and Competitiveness" (PDF). Retrieved 16 July 2019.
  19. 1 2 "Rural poverty in Bangladesh", Rural Recovery Portal
  20. 1 2 "Bangladesh – Poverty and wealth", Encyclopedia of the Nations, accessed 22 July 2013
  21. ↑ "Poverty in Urban Bangladesh" (PDF).
  22. ↑ "New year with a fresh start: Addressing urban poverty in Bangladesh". blogs.worldbank.org. 12 December 2018. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
  23. ↑ Japan Bank for International Cooperation. "Poverty Profile People's Republic of Bangladesh, Executive Summary", Retrieved 23 February 2011
  24. ↑ "Bangladesh Population Growth Rate 1950-2023".
  25. ↑ "Creating a Green and Sustainable Growth Path for Bangladesh". World Bank. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
  26. ↑ "Environment, Energy, and Climate Resilience | Bangladesh". U.S. Agency for International Development. 6 April 2023. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
  27. ↑ "How Climate Change Deepens Bangladesh's Fragility". United States Institute of Peace. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
  28. ↑ Boyce, James K. (December 1986). "Water Control and Agricultural Performance in Bangladesh". The Bangladesh Development Studies. 14 (4): 1–35. JSTOR   40795261.
  29. 1 2 Brouwer, R.; Akter, S.; Brander, L.; Haque, E (April 2007). "Socioeconomic Vulnerability and Adaptation to Environmental Risk: A Case Study of Climate Change and Flooding in Bangladesh". Risk Analysis. 27 (2): 313–326. Bibcode:2007RiskA..27..313B. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2007.00884.x . hdl: 1871/47994 . PMID   17511700. S2CID   10701001.
  30. ↑ Brouwer, R.; Akter, S.; Brander, L.; Haque, E (June 2009). "Economic valuation of flood risk exposure and reduction in a severely flood prone developing country". Environment and Development Economics. 14 (3): 397–417. doi:10.1017/S1355770X08004828. S2CID   155087104.
  31. ↑ Orr, Alastair; Magor, Noel; Islam, A.S.M. Nazrul (March–June 1995). "Targeting Vulnerable Small Farm Households in Bangladesh". The Bangladesh Development Studies. 23 (1/2): 29–47. JSTOR   40795525.
  32. ↑ Haque,C.E., & Zaman, M.Q. Vulnerability and responses to riverine hazards in Bangladesh: A critique of flood control and mitigation approaches. In A. Varley (Ed)., Disasters, Development and the Environment (1994). New York: Wiley.
  33. 1 2 Orr et al.: Orr, A, Magor, N.P., Islam, A.S.M., Islam, R., Shah-E-Alam, M., and Jabbar, M.A., Vulnerable Farmers in the DWR Environment: The Impact of the 1988 Floods., In BRRI, Reducing Small Farmer Vulnerability in Bangladesh. Proceedings of the BRRI Workshop, Joydebpur, 30–31 May (1992). Dhaka: BRRI
  34. ↑ "How an evidence-based program from Bangladesh could scale to end extreme poverty". Brookings. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
  35. ↑ Gotur, Padma (15 April 1998), "6 Bangladesh: Economic Reform Measures and the Poor", Social Safety Nets, International Monetary Fund, ISBN   978-1-55775-680-0 , retrieved 25 November 2023
  36. ↑ Bangladesh – facts at a glance – CIDA,http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/eng/JUD-31105911-LRJ, Retrieved 10 March 2011
  37. ↑ Mujeri, Mustafa, K. (Winter 2000). "Poverty Trends and Growth Performance: Some Issues in Bangladesh". The Pakistan Development Review. 39 (4): 1171–1191. doi: 10.30541/v39i4IIpp.1171-1191 (inactive 21 February 2024). JSTOR   41260319.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2024 (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ↑ World Bank. 2002. Report No. 24299-BD: Poverty in Bangladesh: Building on Progress Paper prepared by Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit South Asia Region, World Bank Document
  39. ↑ World Bank. "The Challenges Of Service Delivery for Dhaka’s"www.worldbank.org. World Bank, n.d.Web.3 Mar.2011.<http://siteresources.worldbank.org/BANGLADESHEXTN/Resources/2957591182963268987/ch4.pdf>, Retrieved 10 March 2011
  40. ↑ Bangladesh to be poverty free by 2030: Finance minister https://www.agambarta.com/bangladesh-to-be-poverty-free-by-2030-finance-minister/
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.