The status and characteristics of ancient and modern-day women in Greece evolved from events that occurred in Greek history. In Michael Scott's article, "The Rise of Women in Ancient Greece" (History Today), the place of women and their achievements in Ancient Greece was best described by Thucidydes in this quotation: "The greatest glory [for women] is to be least talked about among men, whether in praise or blame."[4] However, the status of Greek women underwent considerable change and advancement in the 20th century. In 1952, women received the right to vote,[5] which led to their earning places and job positions in businesses and in the government of Greece; and they were able to maintain their right to inherit property, even after being married.[6]
In the Linear B tablets from this era, men are more frequently mentioned by name, title, or occupation. Nonetheless, the references to women offer valuable clues about their roles within palace-controlled economies. Many women are organized into workgroups under palace authority, classified by roles such as textile workers (“linen workers,” “sewing women,” “headband makers”), food producers (“flour-grinders”), and domestic staff (“attendants”). Some women are identified by their origins, which could be local to the palace or from more distant regions—for instance, records from Pylos in southwestern Greece list women from as far away as the Turkish coast.
Though these women are not often directly referred to as enslaved, the details of their origins, references to some groups as “captives,” and the palace's regulation of their lives and labor suggest they were likely in a state of effective enslavement or, at the very least, heavily dependent on palace authority. Documentation from the palace records their numbers, the provision of basic rations like grain and figs, and the distribution of raw materials for their work, all of which underscore this dependency. Some of these groups are listed under the name of a male supervisor or owner, and many records also note their children, who presumably worked alongside their mothers and learned their trades.
Women of this social standing are seldom identified by name, but there are a few notable instances. For example, a tablet from Knossos on Crete lists a group of women—likely textile workers—by individual names, including one called Wordieya, or “Rosie.” Another tablet from Pylos records a woman named Kessandra as the recipient of a substantial ration allocation, enough to support 20 workers for 20 days. Kessandra may have been responsible for supervising a team of male workers, though the specific type of work isn't mentioned. Her role could have been limited to overseeing this group, or she might have held a higher position within the palace's administration, though there's insufficient context to determine her exact responsibilities. Additionally, the identities and genders of the Linear B scribes are unknown; while it's widely assumed most were men, it's possible that some scribes could have been women.
Women in ancient Greece
Although most women lacked political and equal rights in Ancient Greece, they enjoyed a certain freedom of movement until the Archaic age.[7] Records exist of women in ancient Delphi, Gortyn, Thessaly, Megara and Sparta owning land, the only durable form of wealth at the time.[8] However, after the Archaic age, women's status worsened, and laws on gender segregation were implemented.[7] In general, Classical Greek women were expected to manage a household, supervising or performing domestic tasks such as weaving cloth, and bearing children.[citation needed] Historian Don Nardo stated "throughout antiquity most Greek women had few or no civil rights and many enjoyed little freedom of choice or mobility."[9]
Detailed records on the status of women in Ancient Greece only describe the behavior and treatment of elites, and have survived for only three poleis: Sparta, Athens and Gortyn.[10] As those states were exceptional in the Greek world, it is unclear how much can be generalized from these records. Most historians assume that women's rights in other Greek polities could be placed somewhere on a continuum between Spartan and Athenian societies.[citation needed]
Athenian women preparing for a wedding (ceramic painting, 5th century BC)Woman kneeling before an altar (Attic red-figure kylix, 5th BC, Stoa of Attalos)
Women in Classical Athens had no legal personhood and were assumed to be part of the oikos (household) headed by the male kyrios (master). In Athenian society, the legal term of a wife was known as a damar, a word that is derived from the root meaning of "to subdue" or "to tame".[11] Until marriage, women were under the guardianship of their fathers or other male relatives; once married, the husband became a woman's kyrios.[12][13] Women typically married around age 14 to a husband about twice their age. This system was implemented as a way to help ensure that girls were virgins when they wed.[dubious–discuss][14][verification needed] The girl's kyrios typically selected her husband; she would have little input.[15] Often, the kyrios selected a different male relative to ensure that any inherited property remained within the family.[16][17]
Classical Athens idealized extreme female seclusion.[18] Legal records suggest that respectable women may have been embarrassed in the presence of their male relatives[19] or for an unrelated man to simply know their name.[20][21] Such seclusion was likely impractical for all but the wealthy, as domestic tasks such as fetching water required entering public spaces.[22]
Nevertheless, Athenian women were excluded from essentially all public life. Their gender acted as a permanent disability inhibiting full citizenship,[23] similar to enslavement but without a removal process analogous to manumission.[24] Women were barred from conducting legal proceedings, and their kyrios would represent them instead.[25]
Athenian women had limited right to property, and independently could only enter into a contract worth less than the value of a "medimnos of barley" (a measure of grain), allowing women to engage in petty trading.[25] A woman could acquire property through gifts, dowry and inheritance, but her kyrios had the right to dispose of her property as he wished.[26] If the head of a household died with no male heir to inherit, then a daughter may become the provisional heir of the property, known as epikleros (roughly translated to an heiress). Later, it was common for a woman to marry a close relative of her father if she became adjunct to that property.[27]
Most upper-class Athenian boys would receive private tutelage on rhetoric and physical education, essential for political and military participation.[28] As women participated in neither, Athenian girls received little-to-no formal education. Instead, they would apprentice with their mothers to learn the domestic arts.[29]
The only areas in which Athenian women could participate freely were religious ritual[30][31] and entertainment/prostitution. Despite the seclusion ideal, many religious festivals involved both genders. The few that did not (especially the Thesmophoria) were restricted to women alone.[32] The priestesshood of Athena held great moral suasion[33] and women appear to have managed private rites of passage.[32] Athenian practice does not appear to have clearly distinguished between entertainment and sex work,[34] and some upper-class hetairai prostitutes appear to have become some of the most independent, wealthy, and influential women in Athens.[35]
The vast majority (~94%) of Spartan women were enslaved helots, a proportion extraordinary in the classical world. These women bore the economic brunt of Sparta's extractive class structure, and had few-to-no legal protections against abuse.[36][37] They were raped sufficiently often to generate an entire underclass, the nothoi or mothakes.[36][38][39] Unusually for slaves in ancient Greece, helots were free to select other helot partners for sexual reproduction,[40] although the paramilitary krypteia would promptly kill any beautiful or unusually-capable children from such unions.[36]
By contrast, the extremely few free ("spartiate") women enjoyed status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. Spartiate women were formally excluded from military and political life,[36] but began running estates while men were engaged in military activity.[41] Following protracted warfare in the 4thcenturyBC Spartan women owned between 60% and 70% of all Spartan land and property.[41][42] By the Hellenistic Period, some of the wealthiest Spartans were women.[43]
Sparta reared young spartiate boys for military and paramilitary work away from their family in the agoge, a practice that included extensive, violent physical and emotional abuse but likely little intellectual work.[44] Spartiate girls instead remained with their families, learning household management and possibly literacy.[45][46][47] Unlike in other city-states, however, Spartiate women rarely performed domestic labor, which they considered demeaning and better extorted from helots.[36][48][49]Helot-made Spartiate clothing was notoriously simple and short relative to in other polities, and scandalously bared girls' thighs.[50][37]
The extent to which the state supervised spartiate girls' education is unclear.[51] Girls appear to have imbibed Spartan values primarily through music, dance, song, and exercise.[52] Spartiate girls trained athletically as though for combat, and may have participated in the Gymnopaedia ("Festival of Nude Youths").[41][53][54] They likely ceased participation in athletic competitions after marriage,[55] typically around age 20.[56] Plutarch wrote in his Sayings of Spartans: "When someone inquired why they took their girls into public places unveiled, but their married women veiled, he said, 'Because the girls have to find husbands, and the married women have to keep to those who have them!".[57]
Spartan marriage may have been a looser relationship than in other Greek polities. Polybius writes of polygyny[58] and wife-sharing.[59] Spartiate men were rarely at home,[60][61] and a newlywed spartiate bride would have cross-dressed as a man to better resemble her husband's past sexual partners.[62] Nevertheless, Sparta appears to have placed great value on bearing unflinching sons, and Spartiate women whose children died in battle appear to have been celebrated.[63][pageneeded] Conversely, Plutarch writes of Spartan women killing their cowardly sons themselves.[64]
Despite greater mobility relative to Athenian women, spartiate women could not participate in politics. Men forbade them from speaking at assemblies and segregated them from any political activities.[9]
In law codes and philosophical texts
The Gortyn law code granted women a much better position than in mainland Greece. All women, including slaves, were protected. Gortyn women, like Spartan women, were able to enter into legal agreements and appear before the court. They were able to own property without male co-ownership or permission. Husband and wife had equal right to divorce. A free, divorced woman could throw her child into the river. Sisters and brothers shared inheritances equally. Epicleros (in Sparta and Gortyn, they were called patrouchoi) had a certain freedom of choice regarding marriage. Namely, if a woman was already married with children and became an epicler, she could choose whether to divorce her husband or not. But a married woman without children who became an epicler had no choice but to divorce and remarry, according to the regulations. In general, a daughter who inherited property could not dispose of it. An exception was that she could sell it or pledge it as payment in the amount of a debt owed to her late father's creditor.
Athens was the cradle of philosophy in Ancient Greece, and most surviving philosophic texts work to justify Athenian practice. Almost no female philosophers are known.[9]
During the Hellenistic period in Athens, the famous philosopher Aristotle thought that women would bring disorder, evil, and were "utterly useless and caused more confusion than the enemy."[9] Because of this, Aristotle thought keeping women separate from the rest of the society was the best idea.[9] This separation would entail living in homes called a gynaeceum while looking after the duties in the home and having very little exposure with the male world.[9] This was also to protect women's fertility from men other than husbands, to ensure the legitimacy of their born lineage.[9] Athenian women were also educated very little, except home tutorship for basic skills such as spinning, weaving, cooking, and some knowledge of money.[9]
Plato acknowledged that extending civil and political rights to women would substantively alter the nature of the household and the state.[65]Aristotle, who had been taught by Plato, denied that women were slaves or subject to property, arguing that "nature has distinguished between the female and the slave," but he considered wives to be "bought." He argued that women's main economic activity is that of safeguarding the household property created by men. According to Aristotle, the labour of women added no value because "the art of household management is not identical with the art of getting wealth, for the one uses the material which the other provides."[66]Aristotle also thought Spartan women's influence was mischievous and argued that the greater legal freedom of women in Sparta caused its ruin.[9]
Contrary to these views, the Stoic philosophers argued for equality of the sexes, sexual inequality being in their view contrary to the laws of nature.[67] In doing so, they followed the Cynics, who argued that men and women should wear the same clothing and receive the same kind of education.[67] They also saw marriage as a moral companionship between equals rather than a biological or social necessity, and practiced these views in their lives.[67] The Stoics adopted the views of the Cynics and added them to their own theories of human nature, thus putting their sexual egalitarianism on a strong philosophical basis.[67]
Despite the harsh limits on women's freedoms and rights in ancient Greece, their rights in context of divorce were fairly liberal. Marriage could be terminated by mutual consent or action taken by either spouse. If a woman wanted to end her marriage, she needed the help of her father or other male relative to represent her, because as a woman she was not considered a citizen of Greece. If a man wanted a divorce, however, all he had to do was throw his spouse out of his house. A woman's father also had the right to end the marriage. In the instance of a divorce, the dowry was returned to the woman's guardian (who was usually her father) and she had the right to retain half of the goods she had produced while in the marriage. If the couple had children, divorce resulted in full paternal custody, as children were seen as belonging to his household. While the laws regarding divorce may seem relatively fair, considering how little control women had over most aspects of their lives in ancient Greece, women were unlikely to divorce their husbands because of the damage it would do to their reputation.[14] As women were barred from conducting legal proceedings, the kyrios would do so on their behalf.[25]
In the arts
A depiction of in the women's quarters of a house, on a classical Greek vase. The photo is focused on a seated woman who is relaxed while fingering a "barbiton" (a stringed instrument).
Little surviving art depicts women in ancient Greek society. The majority of sources come from pottery found which displayed the everyday lives of citizens. Such pottery provides a medium which allows us to examine women's roles of the time, generally depicted as goddesses, keepers of domestic life, or whores. Scenes of adornment in vase painting are a window into the women's sphere, though they are not entirely realistic, rather, a product of the voyeuristic and romanticized image of womanhood envisioned by males.[68] Women are frequently depicted as "sexual objects" in ancient Greek pottery, thus providing context for the sexual culture of Ancient Greece.[69] A majority of vase scenes portray women inside their houses. A common presence of columns suggests that women spent much of their time in the courtyard of the house. The courtyard was the one place where they could regularly enjoy the outdoors and get fresh air. A majority of Greek cooking equipment was small and light and could easily be set up there. It can be inferred that during sunny weather, women probably sat in the roofed and shaded areas of the courtyard, for the ideal in female beauty was a pale complexion.[70]
Lysistrata (/laɪˈsɪstrətə/ or /ˌlɪsəˈstrɑːtə/; Attic Greek: Λυσιστράτη, Lysistrátē, "Army Disbander") is an ancient Greek comedy written by Aristophanes, originally performed in classical Athens in 411 BCE.[71] The play depicts women's extraordinary mission to end the Peloponnesian War between Greek city states by denying men sexual pleasures, which was the only thing the men desired. Women were going to end the war by capitalizing on their sexuality.[72] Lysistrata persuades the women of the warring cities to withhold sexual privileges from their husbands and lovers as a means of forcing the men to negotiate peace. This strategy, however, only inflames the battle between the sexes.
Amongst the Greek warriors in the Greek War of Independence, there were also women, such as Laskarina Bouboulina. Bouboulina, also known as kapetanissa (captain/admiral) in 1821 raised on the mast of Agamemnon her own Greek flag and sailed with eight ships to Nafplion to begin a naval blockade. Later she took part also in the naval blockade and capture of Monemvasia and Pylos.
Another heroine was Manto Mavrogenous. From a rich family, she spent all her fortune for the Hellenic cause. Under her encouragement, her European friends contributed money and guns to the revolution. She moved to Nafplio in 1823, in order to be in the core of the struggle, leaving her family as she was despised even by her mother because of her choices. Soon, she became famous around Europe for her beauty and bravery.
Contemporary period
During the past decades, the position of women in Greek society has changed dramatically. Efharis Petridou was the first female lawyer in Greece; in 1925 she joined the Athens Bar Association.[73][74] The women of Greece won the right to vote in 1952. In 1955, women were first allowed to become judges in Greece.[73]
Family dynamics remain conservative, however. The principal form of partnership is marriage, and extramarital childbearing and long-term cohabitation are not widespread. For instance, in 2015, Greece had the lowest percentage of births outside marriage in the European Union, at only 8.8%.[82] Greece has a low fertility rate, at 1.33 number of children per woman (in 2015), lower than the replacement rate of 2.1.[83]
Sparta was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon, while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement on the banks of the Eurotas River in the Eurotas valley of Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. Around 650 BC, it rose to become the dominant military land-power in ancient Greece.
Spartan hegemony refers to the period of dominance by Sparta in Greek affairs from 404 to 371 BC. Even before this period the polis of Sparta was the greatest military land power of classical Greek antiquity and governed, dominated or influenced the entire Peloponnese. The defeat of the Athenians and the Delian League in the Peloponnesian War in 431–404 BC resulted in a short-lived Spartan dominance of the southern Greek world from 404 to 371 BC. Due to their mistrust of others, Spartans discouraged the creation of records about their internal affairs. The only histories of Sparta are from the writings of Xenophon, Thucydides, Herodotus and Plutarch, none of whom were Spartans. Plutarch was writing several centuries after the period of Spartan hegemony had ceased. This creates difficulties in understanding the Spartan political system, which was distinctly different from any other Greek polis.
The helots were a subjugated population that constituted a majority of the population of Laconia and Messenia – the territories ruled by Sparta. There has been controversy since antiquity as to their exact characteristics, such as whether they constituted an Ancient Greek tribe, a social class, or both. For example, Critias described helots as "slaves to the utmost", whereas according to Pollux, they occupied a status "between free men and slaves". Tied to the land, they primarily worked in agriculture as a majority and economically supported the Spartan citizens.
Cleomenes I was Agiad King of Sparta from c. 524 to c. 490 BC. One of the most important Spartan kings, Cleomenes was instrumental in organising the Greek resistance against the Persian Empire of Darius, as well as shaping the geopolitical balance of Classical Greece.
Cynisca was a wealthy Spartan princess. She is famous for being the first woman to win at the Olympic Games; her horse teams competed in the sport of chariot racing, driven by male charioteers. Cynisca first entered the Olympics in 396 BC, where she won first prize competing with a team of horses she had trained herself. In 392 BC, Cynisca entered her horses in the Olympics for a second time and was awarded another victory in the same event.
Laconophilia is love or admiration of Sparta and of the Spartan culture or constitution. The term derives from Laconia, the part of the Peloponnesus where the Spartans lived.
Oikos (Ancient Greek: οἶκος was, in Ancient Greece, two related but distinct concepts: the family and the family's house. Its meaning shifted even within texts.
Mothax is a Doric Greek word meaning "stepbrother".
A Spartiate or Homoios was an elite full-citizen male of the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta. Spartiate-class males were a small minority: estimates are that they made up between 1/10 and 1/32 of the population, with the proportion decreasing over time; the vast majority of the people of Sparta were helots (slaves).
An epikleros was an heiress in ancient Athens and other ancient Greek city states, specifically a daughter of a man who had no sons. In Sparta, they were called patrouchoi (πατροῦχοι), as they were in Gortyn. Athenian women were not allowed to hold property in their own name; in order to keep her father's property in the family, an epikleros was required to marry her father's nearest male relative. Even if a woman was already married, evidence suggests that she was required to divorce her spouse to marry that relative. Spartan women were allowed to hold property in their own right, and so Spartan heiresses were subject to less restrictive rules. Evidence from other city-states is more fragmentary, mainly coming from the city-states of Gortyn and Rhegium.
The Spartans is a three-part historical documentary series presented by Bettany Hughes and first broadcast on UK's Channel 4 on 17 November 2002. The series subsequently premiered on ABC in Australia on 1 June 2003 and on PBS in the United States on 6 August 2003.
The Spartan army was the principle ground force of Sparta. It stood at the center of the ancient Greek city-state, consisting of citizens trained in the disciplines and honor of a warrior society. Subjected to military drills since early manhood, the Spartans became one of the most feared and formidable military forces in the Greek world, attaining legendary status in their wars against Persia. At the height of Sparta's power—between the 6th and 4th centuries BC—other Greeks commonly accepted that "one Spartan was worth several men of any other state."
Education for Greek people was vastly "democratized" in the 5th century B.C., influenced by the Sophists, Plato, and Isocrates. Later, in the Hellenistic period of Ancient Greece, education in a gymnasium school was considered essential for participation in Greek culture. The value of physical education to the ancient Greeks and Romans has been historically unique. There were two forms of education in ancient Greece: formal and informal. Formal education was attained through attendance to a public school or was provided by a hired tutor. Informal education was provided by an unpaid teacher and occurred in a non-public setting. Education was an essential component of a person's identity.
The Spartan Constitution are the government and laws of the classical Greek city-state of Sparta. All classical Greek city-states had a politeia; the politeia of Sparta however, was noted by many classical authors for its unique features, which supported a rigidly layered social system and a strong hoplite army.
Spartan women were famous in ancient Greece for seemingly having more freedom than women elsewhere in the Greek world. To contemporaries outside of Sparta, Spartan women had a reputation for promiscuity and controlling their husbands. Spartan women could legally own and inherit property, and they were usually better educated than their Athenian counterparts. The surviving written sources are limited and largely from a non-Spartan viewpoint. Anton Powell wrote that to say the written sources are "'not without problems'... as an understatement would be hard to beat".
Kyrios or kurios is a Greek word that is usually translated as "lord" or "master". It is used in the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible about 7000 times, in particular translating the name YHWH, and it appears in the Koine Greek New Testament about 740 times, usually referring to Jesus.
The study of the lives of women in classical Athens has been a significant part of classical scholarship since the 1970s. The knowledge of Athenian women's lives comes from a variety of ancient sources. Much of it is literary evidence, primarily from tragedy, comedy, and oratory; supplemented with archaeological sources such as epigraphy and pottery. All of these sources were created by—and mostly for—men: there is no surviving ancient testimony by classical Athenian women on their own lives.
Slavery was a widely accepted practice in ancient Greece, as it was in contemporaneous societies. The principal use of slaves was in agriculture, but they were also used in stone quarries or mines, as domestic servants, or even as a public utility, as with the demosioi of Athens.
In Classical Athens, there was no exact equivalent of the English term "adultery", but the similar moicheia was a criminal offence often translated as adultery by scholars. Athenian moicheia was restricted to illicit sex with free women, and so men could legally have extra-marital sex with slaves and prostitutes. Famously, Athenian culture and adultery laws considered seduction of a citizen woman a worse crime than rape.
Marriage in ancient Greece had less of a basis in personal relationships and more in social responsibility, however the available historical records on the subject focus exclusively on Athens or Sparta and primarily on the aristocratic class. According to these records, the goal and focus of all marriages was intended to be reproduction, making marriage an issue of public interest. Marriages were usually arranged by the parents; on occasion professional matchmakers were used. Each city was politically independent and each had its own laws concerning marriage. For the marriage to be legal, the woman's father or guardian gave permission to a suitable man who could afford to marry. Daughters were usually married to uncles or cousins. Wintertime marriages were popular due to the significance of that time to Hera, the goddess of marriage. The couple participated in a ceremony which included rituals such as veil removal, but it was the couple living together that made the marriage legal. Marriage was understood to be the official transition from childhood into adulthood for women.
1 2 Kirby, John T. "Marriage". go.galegroup.com. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
↑ Bakewell, Geoffrey (2008). "Forbidding marriage: "Neaira" 16 and metic spouses at Athens". The Classical Journal. 104 (2): 103.
↑ Davis, J. K. (1992). "Society and economy". In Lewis, David M.; Boardman, John; Davis, J. K.; etal. (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol.V (2nded.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.289. ISBN9780521233477.
↑ Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1994). Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in classical antiquity. London: Pimlico. p.64. ISBN9780712660549.
↑ Dover, K. J. (1973). "Classical Greek attitudes to sexual behaviour". Arethusa. 6 (1): 61.
↑ Winkler, John J. (1989). The Constraints of Desire: The anthropology of sex and gender in Ancient Greece. New York: Routledge. p.5. ISBN9780415901239.
↑ Schaps, D. M. (1977). "The woman least mentioned: Etiquette and women's names". The Classical Quarterly. 27 (2): 323–330. doi:10.1017/S0009838800035606.
↑ Cohen, David (1989). "Seclusion, separation, and the status of women in Classical Athens". Greece & Rome. 36 (1): 8–9. doi:10.1017/S0017383500029284.
↑ Ute 2001, p.35. sfn error: no target: CITEREFUte2001 (help)
↑ Carey, Christopher (1995). "Rape and adultery in Athenian law". The Classical Quarterly. 45 (2): 414. doi:10.1017/S0009838800043482.
1 2 Foxhall, Lin (2005). "Pandora Unbound: A feminist critique of Foucault's History of Sexuality". In Cornwall, Andrea; Lindisfarne, Nancy (eds.). Dislocating Masculinity. London: Routledge. p.137. ISBN0203393430.
↑ Ogden, Daniel (2003). "Women and bastardy in the Greek world". In Powell, Anton (ed.). The Greek World. London: Routledge. pp.228–229. ISBN0203042166.
↑ Demos, Vasilikie. (2007) “The Intersection of Gender, Class and Nationality and the Agency of Kytherian Greek Women.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association. 11 August.
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