Cretan school describes an important school of icon painting, under the umbrella of post-Byzantine art, [1] which flourished while Crete was under Venetian rule during the late Middle Ages, reaching its climax after the fall of Constantinople, becoming the central force in Greek painting during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Cretan artists developed a particular style of painting under the influence of both Eastern and Western artistic traditions and movements; the most famous product of the school, El Greco, was the most successful of the many artists who tried to build a career in Western Europe, and also the one who left the Byzantine style farthest behind him in his later career.
There was a substantial demand for Byzantine icons in Europe throughout the Middle Ages and, as a Venetian possession since 1204, Crete had a natural advantage and soon came to dominate the supply. A probable early example is the famous icon of the Virgin in Rome known as Our Mother of Perpetual Help, which was certainly well known in Rome by 1499. At this date there is little to distinguish Cretan work from other Byzantine icons stylistically, and the quality of work is lower than that associated with Constantinople.
This period also saw considerable numbers of wall-paintings in local churches and monasteries - altogether some 850 from the 14th and 15th centuries survive in Crete, far more than from earlier or later periods. [2]
By the late 15th century, Cretan artists had established a distinct icon-painting style, distinguished by "the precise outlines, the modelling of the flesh with dark brown underpaint and dense tiny highlights on the cheeks of the faces, the bright colours in the garments, the geometrical treatment of the drapery, and, finally the balanced articulation of the composition", [3] or "sharp contours, slim silhouettes, linear draperies and restrained movements". [4] The most famous artist of the period was Andreas Ritzos (c. 1421–1492), whose son Nicholas was also well known. Angelos Akotantos, until recently thought to be a conservative painter of the 17th century, is now, after the discovery of a will dated 1436, seen to have been an innovative artist in fusing Byzantine and Western styles, who survived until about 1457, when the will was actually registered. The will was made in anticipation of a voyage to Constantinople; several icons were bequeathed to church institutions, some Catholic but mainly Orthodox, and the disposition of his stock of pattern drawings was carefully specified. [5] Andreas Pavias (d. after 1504) and his pupil Angelos Bizamanos, and Nicholas Tzafuris (d. before 1501) were other leading artists. [6]
Even before the fall of Constantinople there is evidence that leading Byzantine artists were leaving the capital in order to settle in Crete. The migration of Byzantine artists to Crete continued increasingly during the following years and reached its peak after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when Crete became "the most important centre of art in the Greek world", influencing artistic developments in the rest of the Greek world. Cretan icons were commissioned for monasteries on Mount Athos and elsewhere. [7] Until it fell to the Turks in 1522, the Cretan school was rivalled by the smaller and less significant community of artists in Rhodes. [8] The Venetian archives preserve considerable documentation on the trade of artistic icons between Venice and Crete, which by the end of the 15th century had become one of mass production. There is documentation of a specific order in 1499, of 700 icons of the Virgin, 500 in a Western style, and 200 in Byzantine style. The order was placed with three artists by two dealers, one Venetian and one from mainland Greece, and the time between contract date and delivery was set at only forty-five days. Probably the quality of many such commissioned icons was fairly low, and the dismissive term Madonneri was devised to describe such bulk painters, who later practiced in Italy also, often using a quasi-Byzantine style, and apparently often Greek or Dalmatian individuals. Production of icons at these levels seems to have led to a glut in the market, and in the following two decades there is much evidence that the Cretan trade declined significantly, as the European demand had been reduced. [9] But at the top end of the market Cretan icons were now the finest in the Byzantine world.
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About 120 artists can be documented working in Candia (the Venetian name of Chandax, present day Herakleion), in the period 1453–1526, and they had organized a Schuola di San Luca painter's guild, based on the Italian model. [10] The blending of the Eastern and the Western traditions, and a relaxed interchange between Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic rites led to the "Cretan Renaissance", a golden period for the arts on the island, where both literature and painting flourished. Some of these painters chose to continue the Byzantine tradition of Constantinople, while others were influenced by the masters of the Venetian Renaissance, such as Giovanni Bellini and Titian. [11] Later, Paolo Veronese was to be a particular influence. Works by these masters or copies were in monasteries and churches of the island, while examples of early Netherlandish painting decorated the Catholic churches of Candia or were to be found in the private collections of rich Venetians and Greeks. [12] In particular, Candia contained a large Franciscan church and a large Orthodox monastery, a daughter-house of Saint Catherine's Monastery, both of which had strong collections from their respective traditions.
Contemporary documents refer to two styles in painting: the maniera greca (alla greca, in line with the Byzantine idiom) and the maniera Latina (alla Latina, in accordance with Western techniques), which artists knew and utilized according to the circumstances; as a result some kind of "eclecticism" appeared. [13] Indeed, sometimes both styles could be found in the same icon, the one right next to the other. [12] The fame of the most prominent Cretan painters spread throughout Greece, the Mediterranean and Europe. After the beginning of the 16th century, the Cretan artists once again had more commissions and their works were avidly sought, since they had started to use new motives and to adjust their iconography to the new trends of their era. To an extent quantity was probably replaced by quality compared with the previous century.
Apart from El Greco, the most famous Cretan artists during the century were Theophanis Strelitzas (Θεοφάνης Στρελίτζας), known as Theophanes the Cretan, Michael Damaskenos (Μιχαήλ Δαμασκηνός), and Georgios Klontzas (Γεώργιος Κλόντζας). [11] Various members of the Lambardos family were also significant artists. Fortunately for art historians, many Cretan painters adopted the practice, perhaps as early as Western painters, of signing their work, which was not a traditional Byzantine practice. [14]
Theophanes the Cretan was a relatively conservative Cretan artist, whose first dated work is from 1527, and all of whose known works were done on the mainland or smaller islands. He was the most important Greek wall painter of his day, incorporating some Western iconographic and stylistic elements, but remaining essentially Byzantine in spirit.
The intellectual and artistic personality of the young El Greco was formed in this artistic environment. In 1563, at the age of twenty-two, El Greco was described in a document as a "master" ("maestro Domenigo"), meaning he was already an enrolled master of the local guild, presumably in charge of his own workshop. [15] He left for Venice a few years later, and never returned to Crete. His Dormition of the Virgin , of before 1567 in tempera and gold on panel (61.4 × 45 cm, Holy Cathedral of the Dormition of the Virgin, Hermoupolis, Syros) was probably created near the end of El Greco's Cretan period. The painting combines post-Byzantine and Italian Mannerist stylistic and iconographic elements, and incorporates stylistic elements of the Cretan school.
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During the second half of the 16th century, many Cretan artists went to Venice, in the hope of gaining commissions and recognition. Unlike El Greco, the other Cretan painters who moved there did not substantially alter their styles or working methods. They simply incorporated more Italian motifs into a consistent Byzantine framework. Jonathan Brown provides a perceptive analysis of the ways that El Greco distinguished himself from other Cretan artists active in Venice, while Richard Mann argues that "none of these painters accepted Renaissance ideas about the relevance of change to the creation of art works". [16] Michael Damaskenos returned to Crete after three years, and remained there for the rest of his life.
The 1600s were characterized as the final period of the Cretan school. The movement featured many artists. The late Cretan school was characterized by prototypes set forth by Michael Damaskinos and Georgios Klontzas. During that period Damaskinos's Beheading of John the Baptist and the Stoning of Stephen were copied by countless Cretan artists. Some included Philotheos Skoufos. [17]
Georgios Klontzas was another Cretan painter copied by many artists of the late Cretan school. Both his In Thee Rejoiceth and his The Last Judgment set the standard for painters of the late Cretan school. Theodore Poulakis was a prominent member of the late Cretan school. His version of Klontzas's painting was also called In Thee Rejoiceth . Both paintings are very similar. Many other painters also created their own version of Klontzas's In Thee Rejoiceth . [18]
The Last Judgement was covered by artists of the Greek-Italian Byzantine style. Klontzas created his own unique version of the painting. Klontzas's Last Judgment was copied by artists of the late Cretan school. Notable versions include Moskos's Last Judgment and Kavertzas's Last Judgment . [19]
One of the most important artistic advancements of the late Cretan school was the work of Ieremias Palladas, a Sinaitic monk. His painting of Catherine of Alexandria , in Saint Catherine's Monastery, was copied by numerous contemporary artists and has served as a prototype for the depiction of the saint into modern times. Painters of the late Cretan school also created their own version of the Crucifixion. Notable version were Ioannis Moskos's Crucifixion and Georgios Markazinis's Crucifixion . [20]
Another major representative of the Cretan school during the 17th century was famous Greek painter Emmanuel Tzanes, 130 of his works survived. Cretan icon painters continued to flourish, until the mid-century. Venetian art was not the only influence of the Cretan school. The late Cretan school was characterized by the influence of flemish engravings namely that of engraver Jan Sadeler I. Sadeler had a workshop in Venice. His work influenced Konstantinos Tzanes and Georgios Markazinis.
The Ottoman Turks occupied all the island except for Candia, which finally fell after twenty years of siege in 1669. [21] After the Ottoman occupation of Crete, the centre of Greek painting moved to the Ionian Islands, which remained under Venetian rule until the Napoleonic Wars. A new artistic movement was created called the Heptanese school which was mostly influenced by Western European artistic trends. Many Cretan artists migrated to the Heptanese or Western Europe to enjoy the artistic freedom. Few artists continued to flourish in Crete after the occupation. Some of them were Michael Prevelis, Ioannis Kornaros and Georgios Kastrofylakas. A successive occupation of the Ionian islands by the French and the British allowed the Heptanese to remain the centre of Greek art until the independence of Greece in 1830.
The Institute of Neohellenic Research published three encyclopaedias outlining the records of countless artists from the fall of the Byzantine Empire until the establishment of modern Greece. It is the first time in history Greek painters were listed on this scale and magnitude. The work resembles Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects and Bernardo de' Dominici's Vite dei Pittori, Scultori, ed Architetti Napolitani. [17]
The books feature thousands of paintings, frescos, and other artistic works. The encyclopaedias feature hundreds of painters. The three volumes are currently only available in Greek and entitled Έλληνες Ζωγράφοι μετά την Άλωση (1450-1830) or Greek Painters After the Fall (1450-1830). Eugenia Drakopoulou and Manolis Hatzidakis were the major contributors. The volumes were published in 1987, 1997, and 2010. The books feature many artists from the Cretan school or Greek Renaissance period. Drakopoulou continues her research with the institute until today. [22] [23]
The program's purpose is to build an archive of Greek painters after the fall of Constantinople (1450-1830). It features biographical details and an index of artistic works. The Institute of Neohellenic Research catalogues portable icons, church frescoes, and or any other artistic works. This is the first time in history a systematic record was accumulated in Greece representing the period. [24]
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The Heptanese school of painting succeeded the Cretan school as the leading school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to the Ottomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school, it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing Western European artistic influence and also saw the first significant depiction of secular subjects. The school was based in the Ionian Islands, which were not part of Ottoman Greece, from the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century. The center of Greek art migrated urgently to the Ionian Islands but countless Greek artists were influenced by the school including the ones living throughout the Greek communities in the Ottoman Empire and elsewhere in the world.
Theodore Poulakis was a Greek Renaissance painter and teacher. He is considered the father of the Heptanese School and one of the most prolific painters of Venetian Crete. Poulakis was a member of the Cretan School, his contemporary was Emmanuel Tzanes. Emmanuel Tzanes and Poulakis were active painters of the Cretan School until Candia, went to war with the Ottomans around 1649. Candia finally fell after twenty years of siege in 1669. Poulakis settled on the island of Corfu. Stephanos Tzangarolas was another famous painter in Corfu around the same period. Poulakis's works are likened to Andreas Pavias and Georgios Klontzas. Poulakis works exhibit qualities of the Venetian school. Over 130 of his paintings have survived and can be found all over the world.
Nikolaos Tzafouris, also Niccolo, Niccolò, Niccolö, Zafuri, Zafuris, was a Greek Renaissance painter. He was one of the founders of the Cretan School. He was influenced by Angelos Akotantos. His works influenced Emmanuel Tzanes, Elias Moskos, Georgios Klontzas and Theodoros Poulakis. Tzafouris was one of the most respected artists in Crete. His most notable work is Madre della Consolazione. The painting exhibits a combination of Byzantine and Italian styles. Another notable painter in Crete around the same time was Andreas Pavias. According to the Institute of Neohellenic Research, thirteen paintings are attributed to Tzafouris.
Georgios Klontzas also known as George Klontzas and Zorzi Cloza dito Cristianopullo, was a scholar, painter, and manuscript illuminator. He is one of the most influential artists of the post-Byzantine period. He defined the Cretan Renaissance. His artistic output included icons, miniatures, triptychs and illuminated manuscripts, commissioned by both Catholic and Orthodox patrons. He is known for occupying his icons with countless figures. The technique is extremely complex and unique to Klontzas. Andreas Pavias attempted this technique in the Crucifixion of Jesus. Klontzas's painting All Creation rejoices in thee is his most popular work. Klontzas influenced Theodore Poulakis he created an extremely similar painting called In Thee Rejoiceth. Klontzas's work is strongly influenced by the Venetian school. His triptychs strongly resemble the works of Gentile da Fabriano, namely the Intercession Altarpiece. Klontzas's Last Judgement resembles Michelangelo's Last Judgement in the Sistine Chapel. There are very close similarities. There is no indication that Klontzas saw the work but it is a possibility. According to the Institute of Neohellenic Research fifty-four items of his art exist today.
Frantzeskos or Franghias Kavertzas was a Greek painter. His painting style resembles the late Cretan School or early Greek Baroque period. His work was influenced by Georgios Klontzas, Michael Damaskinos and Emmanuel Tzanfournaris. He was active in Crete during the early part of the 17th century roughly after the death of Georgios Klontzas. He painted two icons that are very similar to Klontzas's most notable pieces. Theodore Poulakis also painted similar themes. Kavertzas artwork incorporates the Venetian school. His works influenced Leos Moskos. His most notable works are the Last Judgement, In You Rejoiceth.
Ιoannis Apakas, also known as Johann Apakass was a Greek painter and priest. He was active in the latter part of the 16th century to the early 17th century. He was popular artist during his time.
Leo or Leos Moskos was a painter and educator. There were two other painters named Moskos active around the same period, Elias Moskos and Ioannis Moskos, who may have been his relatives. Indeed, Leo is often confused with Elias Moskos. Some of his work was inspired by Georgios Klontzas and Franghias Kavertzas. He traveled all over the Venetian Empire. Records indicate he traveled to Venice, Cephalonia, and Zakynthos His style resembled the Cretan School. He taught famous painter Panagiotis Doxaras. His most popular work is the Last Judgment. His paintings can be found all over the world. Twenty of his paintings have survived.
Emmanuel Lampardos, also known as Emmanouil Lampardos and Manolitzis. He was a Cretan Renaissance painter. Emmanuel and his nephew Emmanuel Lampardos have been very difficult to distinguish because they were active painters around the same period. Countless Greek and Italian artists emulated the famous painters. The name Lampardos was very notable in reference to Cretan art. The family was affiliated with famous painters Franghias Kavertzas and Tzortzi Papadopoulo. Lampardos emulated Georgios Klontzas, Michael Damaskinos, Angelos Akotantos, Andreas Pavias, Andreas Ritzos and Nikolaos Tzafouris. His style was the typical maniera greca with a strong Venetian influence. Countless images of the virgin and child have survived. Lampardos influenced Franghias Kavertzas, Emmanuel Tzanes, Philotheos Skoufos Elias Moskos, Leos Moskos, Ioannis Moskos and Emmanuel Tzanfournaris. Over fifty-six icons have been attributed to Lampardos.
Ioannis Kornaros was a Greek painter. He was one of the few painters from Crete during the 19th century. He does not belong to the Cretan Renaissance but was influenced by the art. He is considered to be one of the foremost icon painters of the Greek Neoclassical era and Modern Greek Enlightenment in art also known as Neo Hellenikos Diafotismos. He implemented a unique style. He was influenced by Michael Damaskinos, Georgios Klontzas, Victor and other Cretan artists. He influenced Modern Greek art. He is one few Greek painters affiliated with Cyprus. Others included Ioannis Kyprios and Theodore Apsevdis. His teacher was Georgios Kastrofylakas. His most famous painting Great Art Thou resembles Georgios Klontzas's In Thee Rejoiceth.
Emmanuel Skordilis, also known as Emmanouil Skordilis. He was a Greek Renaissance painter. He was active in Crete around the time Emmanuel Tzanes, Elias Moskos, and Philotheos Skoufos were painting in Crete. He belongs to the elite group of Greek painters that followed the Venetian influenced maniera greca in Crete. Sixty eight of his works survived. He is one of few artists to not travel to the Ionian Islands and participate in the Heptanese School. He eventually settled in the Cyclades on the inland of Milos. Christodoulos Kalergis is another prominent Greek artist associated with the Cyclades, he was from Mykonos. Skordilis was influenced by Georgios Klontzas, Michael Damaskinos and Angelos. Skordilis brought the artistic style of Crete to the Cyclades and influenced countless artists in that region.
Euphrosynos was a Greek Renaissance painter. He was a priest and influenced by Byzantine art and the early Cretan School. Five of his works have survived, all of them are in Greece. His technique resembled the works of Andreas Pavias, Angelos Akotantos, and Andreas Ritzos. Euphrosynos may have been a member of the prominent Klontzas family. His paintings of the Virgin Mary and Jesus are typical Cretan School paintings. His Jesus painting resembles Pavias's painting Christ Pantocrator. All of his works are at Mount Athos in the Dionysiou Monastery. They decorate the iconostasis. Fragkos Katelanos and Theophanes the Cretan were also working at Mount Athos around the same period.
The Crucifixion is a tempera painting by Konstantinos Paleokapas. Paleokapas was a Greek painter from the island of Crete. He was active during the early part of the 1600s. Six of his works survived, four are signed. The Crucifixion is one of the most popular events in human history. The scene has been duplicated countless times. Many crucifixion paintings were created by painters from the island of Crete. Some painters included El Greco, Andreas Pavias, Georgios Markazinis and Ioannis Moskos. Paleokapas created his own version of the popular subject. His crucifixion painting followed the prototype of many other paintings thematically. He added both the dice players and the resurrection of the dead. Andreas Pavias’s The Crucifixion (Pavias) and Margkazinis’s The Crucifixion (Margkazinis) both feature the popular pictorial representation of Mathews gospel. Paleokapas’s Crucifixion is located at the Gonia Monastery in Crete.
Christ Enthroned is a tempera painting by Elias Moskos, a representative of the Late Cretan School. The artist was also associated with the Heptanese School due to his migration to Zakinthos and the transition of his painting style. Moskos also taught painting. Most of his students became church committee members. Church committees were responsible for commissioning paintings. He was active from 1645 to 1687 on the islands of Crete, Zakynthos, and Kefalonia. Fifty-two of his works survived, over half of them were signed. Two other painters named Moskos were active during the same period Ioannis Moskos and Leos Moskos.
The Virgin Pantanassa is a tempera painting by Andreas Ritzos. Ritzos was a Greek painter active on the island of Crete. He flourished from 1435 to 1492. The painter has an existing catalog of over sixty works attributed to him. He signed his works in both Greek and Latin. He is one of the most influential painters of the Cretan Renaissance. He painted in the traditional Greek-Italian Byzantine style. His work was also heavily influenced by Venetian painting. His teacher was Angelos Akotantos. He was also affiliated with Andreas Pavias. His son was famous Greek painter Nikolaos Ritzos. Ritzo's Italian contemporaries were Paolo Uccello and Fra Angelico. They all painted a mixture of the Greek-Italian Byzantine and Italian Renaissance styles. The art of Crete was heavily influenced by the founder of the Venetian school Paolo Veneziano.
The Virgin Glykofilousa with the Akathist Hymn is a tempera painting created by Greek painter Stephano Tzangarola. The work is a symbol of the craftsmanship of the Heptanese School and the evolution of Greek painting from the Byzantine style to the Cretan Renaissance style. Tzangarola was originally from Crete and migrated to Corfu. The Ionian Islands became the artistic center of the Greek world. He was active from 1675 to 1710 during the Greek Baroque period and Rococo. Twenty-two of his works survived. His student was famous Greek painter and Archpriest Andreas Karantinos.
The Holy Towel is a tempera painting completed in 1659 by Emmanuel Tzanes. He was a representative of the Late Cretan School and the Heptanese School. His brothers were the painter and poet Marinos Tzanes and the painter Konstantinos Tzanes. One hundred thirty works of art are attributed to Emmanuel. He is one of the most important Greek painters of the 17th century along with Theodoros Poulakis. He was from Rethymno Crete. He was active from 1625 to 1690. He was the priest of San Giorgio dei Greci in Venice for thirty years.
Tribute to the Eucharist was a painting made of egg tempera and gold leaf on a wood panel. The portable icon is attributed to Greek painter Michael Damaskinos. Damaskino's existing catalog features over 100 known works. He was a member of the Cretan school of painting. He was from the island of Crete. His contemporaries were Georgios Klontzas and El Greco. Damaskinos traveled all over Italy for over twenty years. He spent a significant amount of time in Venice. He adopted Italian mannerisms. He applied these new attributes to his paintings. He was friends with sculptor Alessandro Vittoria. He had a collection of drawings obtained from other Italian artists. Namely the Mannerist Parmigianino. He was also exposed to the magnificent works of Italian painter Raphael.
Nikolaos Gripiotis aka Nicolò Gripioti, was a Greek painter and teacher. He was a prominent member of the Cretan School in the early 1500s, working alongside such practitioners as Michael Fokas and Giorgio Miçocostantin. No work survives bearing his signature, but documents from the period record thousands of icons produced by his workshop. Nikolaos's son Ioannis Gripiotis also became a prominent painter. The family was related by marriage to Arsenius Apostolius.
Michael Fokas, also known as Migiel Fuca, was a Greek icon painter and art instructor. He came from a prominent family of painters, the founders of the Cretan School; working in this style, Fokas's workshop mass-produced icons for Greek and Italian clients. No surviving painting bears Fokas's signature, but history has preserved a commission for 200 icons which he received on July 4, 1499. This important document charges Fokas to produce works based upon the prototype Madre della Consolazione, originally created by Nikolaos Tzafouris and modeled after Giovanni Bellini.
Transfiguration and Monastic Scenes is a multi-themed tempera painting created by Greek painter Georgios Klontzas. Klontzas was a Cretan Renaissance painter. The artist was hired to assess work completed by El Greco. Klontzas was from a wealthy family and owned a successful workshop in the center of Crete. His existing catalog consists of Fifty-four works. He completed incredible triptychs and manuscripts. Klontzas and Micheal Damaskinos are two of the most prominent Greek painters of the 16th century due to the size of their catalogs and the popularity of their works excluding El Greco.