Eclecticism

Last updated
The grand foyer of the Palais Garnier, by Charles Garnier, 1860-1875. Stylistically, it aimed for a Baroque opulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evoked Louis XIV's Versailles. However, it was not just a revival of the Baroque, being more of a synthesis of Classicist styles, like Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism etc. Thus, it is an example of eclecticism in architecture. Palais Garnier's grand salon, 12 February 2008.jpg
The grand foyer of the Palais Garnier, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875. Stylistically, it aimed for a Baroque opulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evoked Louis XIV's Versailles. However, it was not just a revival of the Baroque, being more of a synthesis of Classicist styles, like Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism etc. Thus, it is an example of eclecticism in architecture.
Early Romanian Revival house on Strada Grigore Alexandrescu in Bucharest, Romania, unknown architect, c. 1900, that mixes Beaux-Arts and Romanian Revival elements and proportions 42 Strada Grigore Alexandrescu, Bucharest (01).jpg
Early Romanian Revival house on Strada Grigore Alexandrescu in Bucharest, Romania, unknown architect, c. 1900, that mixes Beaux-Arts and Romanian Revival elements and proportions

Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories in particular cases. However, this is often without conventions or rules dictating how or which theories were combined.

Contents

It can sometimes seem inelegant or lacking in simplicity, and eclectics are sometimes criticized for lack of consistency in their thinking. It is, however, common in many fields of study. For example, most psychologists accept certain aspects of behaviorism, but do not attempt to use the theory to explain all aspects of human behavior.

Eclecticism in ethics, philosophy, politics, and religion is often compared to syncretism, but the two concepts differ in their approach to combining elements from different traditions. While syncretism in religion involves the merging or assimilation of several distinct traditions into a new, unified system, eclecticism adopts elements from various systems without necessarily integrating them into a single cohesive framework. This distinction allows for a broader, more inclusive approach in eclecticism, where the selection is based on individual merit or preference rather than an attempt to create a new unified tradition.

Origin

Eclecticism was first recorded to have been practiced by a group of ancient Greek and Roman philosophers who attached themselves to no real system, but selected from existing philosophical beliefs those doctrines that seemed most reasonable to them. [1] Out of this collected material they constructed their new system of philosophy. The term comes from the Greek ἐκλεκτικός (eklektikos), literally "choosing the best", [2] [3] and that from ἐκλεκτός (eklektos), "picked out, select". [4] Well known eclectics in Greek philosophy were the Stoics Panaetius and Posidonius, and the New Academics Carneades and Philo of Larissa. Among the Romans, Cicero was thoroughly eclectic, as he united the Peripatetic, Stoic, and New Academic doctrines. Philo's successor and Cicero's teacher Antiochus of Ascalon is credited with influencing the Academy so that it finally transitioned from Skepticism to Eclecticism. [5] Other eclectics included Varro and Seneca the Younger.

According to Rošker and Suhadolnik, however, even though eclecticism had a Greek origin, the term was rarely used and it was even given a negative connotation by historians of Greek thought, associating it with the description for impure and unoriginal thinking. [6] Scholars such as Clement of Alexandria maintained that eclecticism had a long history in Greek philosophy and it is underpinned by a deeper metaphysical and theological conviction concerning the absolute/God as the source of all noble thoughts and that all parts of the truth can be found among the various philosophical systems. [7]

Usage

Building no. 45 on Rue de Courcelles in Paris, unknown architect, unknown date, an example of 19th century architecture that can be called "Eclectic" due to the fact that it uses elements from multiple Classicist styles, like the French Baroque and the Louis XVI style 45 rue de Courcelles, Paris 8e 2.jpg
Building no. 45 on Rue de Courcelles in Paris, unknown architect, unknown date, an example of 19th century architecture that can be called "Eclectic" due to the fact that it uses elements from multiple Classicist styles, like the French Baroque and the Louis XVI style

Architecture and art

The term eclecticism is used to describe the combination, in a single work, of elements from different historical styles, chiefly in architecture and, by implication, in the fine and decorative arts. The term is sometimes also loosely applied to the general stylistic variety of 19th-century architecture after neoclassicism (c.  1820), although the revivals of styles in that period have, since the 1970s, generally been referred to as aspects of historicism. [8]

Eclecticism plays an important role in critical discussions and evaluations but is somehow distant from the actual forms of the artifacts to which it is applied, and its meaning is thus rather indistinct. The simplest definition of the term—that every work of art represents the combination of a variety of influences—is so basic as to be of little use. In some ways Eclecticism is reminiscent of Mannerism in that the term was used pejoratively for much of the period of its currency, although, unlike Mannerism, Eclecticism never amounted to a movement or constituted a specific style: it is characterized precisely by the fact that it was not a particular style.

Martial arts

Some martial arts can be described as eclectic in the sense that they borrow techniques from a wide variety of other martial arts.

Philology

In textual criticism, eclecticism is the practice of examining a wide number of text witnesses and selecting the variant that seems best. The result of the process is a text with readings drawn from many witnesses. In a purely eclectic approach, no single witness is theoretically favored. Instead, the critic forms opinions about individual witnesses, relying on both external and internal evidence.

Since the mid-19th century, eclecticism, in which there is no a priori bias to a single manuscript, has been the dominant method of editing the Greek text of the New Testament (currently, the United Bible Society, 4th ed. and Nestle-Åland, 27th ed.). Even so, the oldest manuscripts, being of the Alexandrian text-type, are the most favored, and the critical text has an Alexandrian disposition. [9]

In Western philosophy

Posidonius (c. 135 - c. 51 BC), who followed Stoicism, but also the works of Plato, Aristotle and Greco-Roman natural philosophers. Posidonio, replica augustea (23 ac.-14 dc ca) da originale del 100-50 ac. ca. 6142.JPG
Posidonius (c. 135 – c. 51 BC), who followed Stoicism, but also the works of Plato, Aristotle and Greco-Roman natural philosophers.

In Hellenistic philosophy, the Eclectics used elements from multiple philosophies, texts, life experiences, and their own philosophical ideas. [10] These ideas include life as connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. This movement is closely associated with Middle Platonism. Eclectic thinkers thrived during the Roman Empire. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, eclecticism "aims at constructing a system broad and vague enough to include, or not to exclude, the principles of the divers schools, though giving at times more importance to those of one school". [10] Roman Empire eclectic figures could belong to a specific philosophical schools while remaining eclectic and drawing on different traditions. Key figures include Asclepiades of Bithynia, Boethius, Panetius of Rhodes, Posidonius, Demetrius the Cynic, Demonax, Philo of Larissa, Antiochus of Ascalon, Andronicus of Rhodes, Aristocles, Alexander of Aphrodisias, Porphyry and Simplicius. [10]

Antiochus of Ascalon (c.  125 – c. 69 BC) was the pupil of Philo of Larissa, and the teacher of Cicero. Through his influence, Platonism transitioned from the Academic Skepticism of the New Academy to Eclecticism. [11] : 273  Whereas Philo had adhered to the doctrine that there is nothing absolutely certain, Antiochus abandoned this to support dogmatism. Among his objections to skepticism was the consideration that without firm convictions no rational content of life is possible. [11] : 273  Antiochus pointed out that it is a contradiction to assert that nothing can be asserted or to prove that nothing can be proved; that we cannot speak of false ideas and at the same time deny the distinction between false and true. [11] : 274  He expounded the Academic, Peripatetic, and Stoic systems in such a way as to show that these three schools deviated from one another only in minor points. [11] : 274  Antiochus was chiefly interested in ethics, in which he tried to find a middle way between Zeno of Citium, Aristotle, and Plato. For instance, he said that virtue suffices for eudaimonia, but for the highest grade of happiness, bodily and external goods are necessary as well. [11] : 274 

This eclectic tendency was enabled by the fact that most of Plato's works were non-dogmatic. [11] : 305  Middle Platonism was promoted by the necessity of considering the main theories of the post-Platonic schools of philosophy, such as the Aristotelian logic and the Stoic psychology and ethics (theory of goods and emotions). [11] : 306  On the one hand the Middle Platonists were engaged like the later Peripatetics in scholarly activities such as the exposition of Plato's doctrines and the explanation of his dialogues; on the other hand they attempted to develop the Platonic theories systematically. In so far as it was subject in this to the influence of Neopythagoreanism, it was of considerable importance in preparing the way for Neoplatonism. [11] : 306 

In modern philosophy, Victor Cousin was the founder of modern Eclecticism. [12]

Psychology

Eclecticism is recognized in approaches to psychology that see many factors influencing behavior and cognition or psyche. In the 1970s, psychologists started using whichever approaches and techniques that they deemed appropriate for their client. [13] They take multiple perspectives into consideration while identifying, explaining, and changing the behavior of the client. [13]

In Asian thought and religion

Indian religions and philosophies are often eclectic, in the sense of drawing upon ideas and practices from diverse philosophical and religious traditions. Indian thought included a diversity of traditions, each with its own distinct teachings and practices, such as Vedānta, Sāṃkhya, Nyāya, and Buddhism. These traditions have shown a remarkable ability to assimilate and adapt elements from one another. This tendency goes back to the Upaniṣads, which incorporate and synthesize a wide array of ideas about the nature of reality, the self (ātman), and the ultimate principle (Brahman). The Upaniṣads do not represent a single, uniform doctrine but rather various perspectives.

Medieval India saw the rise of bhakti movements, which were also characterized by their eclectic use of varying philosophical ideas and religious practices, including Vedānta, Tantra, and local folk practices. Similarly, the Sikh tradition exemplifies eclecticism by combining elements of bhakti Hinduism and Islam. Modern Hinduism is also the result of an eclectic process that brought together numerous philosophical and religious influences (Unifying Hinduism). Modern Hindu figures like Swami Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi continued this tradition of eclecticism. Vivekananda drew upon Vedānta, Sāṃkhya-Yoga, and Western philosophy to present a universalist view of religion. Gandhi, influenced by Jain, Hindu, and Christian ideas, developed a unique philosophy of nonviolence (ahimsa) and social activism.

Indian Buddhism, especially the Mahāyāna tradition is also notable for its openness to a wide range of philosophical ideas and practices. Mahāyāna absorbed and reinterpreted concepts from earlier Buddhist schools while also integrating elements and deities from non-Buddhist traditions. The later Vajrayana Buddhist movement also drew on numerous Mahayana streams of thought as well as on Shaiva Tantra to develop its systems of thought and practice.

In a similar fashion, Chinese thought can also tend towards the harmonization of diverse philosophical and religious traditions, allowing for the coexistence and mutual influence of Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism, and other indigenous beliefs. The three major Chinese religious and philosophical traditions - Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism - have been coexisting and interacting with one another for over two millennia. The synthesis of the "Three Teachings" (Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism) became increasingly pronounced in later periods of Chinese history. The Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) witnessed the rise of Neo-Confucianism, a movement that sought to revitalize Confucian thought in response to the growing influence of Buddhism and Daoism. Neo-Confucian thinkers such as Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming developed more systematic and metaphysical systems which drew upon other systems of thought, including Buddhism. In the modern era, intellectuals of the late Qing dynasty and the Republican period, such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, sought to integrate Western philosophical ideas with traditional Chinese thought. In contemporary China, there is a renewed interest in Confucianism, often blended with elements of modernity and other philosophical systems to address current social and ethical issues.

See also

Related Research Articles

This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, namely philosophical thought extending as far as early post-classical history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chinese philosophy</span> Type of philosophy

Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period, during a period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought", which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments. Although much of Chinese philosophy begun in the Warring States period, elements of Chinese philosophy have existed for several thousand years. Some can be found in the I Ching, an ancient compendium of divination, which dates back to at least 672 BCE.

Eastern philosophy includes the various philosophies that originated in East and South Asia, including Chinese philosophy, Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy, and Vietnamese philosophy, which are dominant in East Asia; and Indian philosophy, which are dominant in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Tibet, Japan and Mongolia.

Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC. Philosophy was used to make sense of the world using reason. It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, epistemology, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics. Greek philosophy continued throughout the Hellenistic period and later evolved into Roman philosophy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian philosophy</span> Philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent

Indian philosophy consists of philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. The philosophies are often called darśana meaning, "to see" or "looking at." Ānvīkṣikī means “critical inquiry” or “investigation." Unlike darśana, ānvīkṣikī was used to refer to Indian philosophies by classical Indian philosophers, such as Chanakya in the Arthaśāstra.

Nondualism includes a number of philosophical and spiritual traditions that emphasize the absence of fundamental duality or separation in existence. This viewpoint questions the boundaries conventionally imposed between self and other, mind and body, observer and observed, and other dichotomies that shape our perception of reality. As a field of study, nondualism delves into the concept of nonduality and the state of nondual awareness, encompassing a diverse array of interpretations, not limited to a particular cultural or religious context; instead, nondualism emerges as a central teaching across various belief systems, inviting individuals to examine reality beyond the confines of dualistic thinking.

Christianity and Hellenistic philosophies experienced complex interactions during the first to the fourth centuries.

Middle Platonism is the modern name given to a stage in the development of Platonic philosophy, lasting from about 90 BC – when Antiochus of Ascalon rejected the scepticism of the new Academy – until the development of neoplatonism under Plotinus in the 3rd century. Middle Platonism absorbed many doctrines from the rival Peripatetic and Stoic schools. The pre-eminent philosopher in this period, Plutarch, defended the freedom of the will and the immortality of the soul. He sought to show that God, in creating the world, had transformed matter, as the receptacle of evil, into the divine soul of the world, where it continued to operate as the source of all evil. God is a transcendent being, who operates through divine intermediaries, which are the gods and daemons of popular religion. Numenius of Apamea combined Platonism with neopythagoreanism and other eastern philosophies, in a move which would prefigure the development of neoplatonism.

Alcinous was a Middle Platonist philosopher. He probably lived in the 2nd century AD, although nothing is known about his life. He is the author of The Handbook of Platonism, an epitome of Middle Platonism intended as a manual for teachers. He has, at times, been identified by some scholars with the 2nd century Middle Platonist Albinus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Platonism</span> Philosophical system

Platonism is the philosophy of Plato and philosophical systems closely derived from it, though contemporary Platonists do not necessarily accept all doctrines of Plato. Platonism has had a profound effect on Western thought. At the most fundamental level, Platonism affirms the existence of abstract objects, which are asserted to exist in a third realm distinct from both the sensible external world and from the internal world of consciousness, and is the opposite of nominalism. This can apply to properties, types, propositions, meanings, numbers, sets, truth values, and so on. Philosophers who affirm the existence of abstract objects are sometimes called Platonists; those who deny their existence are sometimes called nominalists. The terms "Platonism" and "nominalism" also have established senses in the history of philosophy. They denote positions that have little to do with the modern notion of an abstract object.

Antiochus of Ascalon was a 1st-century BC Platonist philosopher. He rejected skepticism, blended Stoic doctrines with Platonism, and was the first philosopher in the tradition of Middle Platonism.

Ancient Roman philosophy is philosophy as it was practiced in the Roman Republic and its successor state, the Roman Empire. Roman philosophy includes not only philosophy written in Latin, but also philosophy written in Greek in the late Republic and Roman Empire. Important early Latin-language writers include Lucretius, Cicero, and Seneca the Younger. Greek was a popular language for writing about philosophy, so much so that the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius chose to write his Meditations in Greek.

Hellenistic philosophy is Ancient Greek philosophy corresponding to the Hellenistic period in Ancient Greece, from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC to the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The dominant schools of this period were the Stoics, the Epicureans and the Skeptics.

Eudorus of Alexandria was an ancient Greek philosopher, and a representative of Middle Platonism. He attempted to reconstruct Plato's philosophy in terms of Pythagoreanism.

Neoplatonism is a version of Platonic philosophy that emerged in the 3rd century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. The term does not encapsulate a set of ideas as much as a series of thinkers. Among the common ideas it maintains is monism, the doctrine that all of reality can be derived from a single principle, "the One".

<i>De finibus bonorum et malorum</i> Philosophical work on ethics by Cicero

De finibus bonorum et malorum is a Socratic dialogue by the Roman orator, politician, and Academic Skeptic philosopher Marcus Tullius Cicero. It consists of three dialogues, over five books, in which Cicero discusses the philosophical views of Epicureanism, Stoicism, and the Platonism of Antiochus of Ascalon. The treatise is structured so that each philosophical system is described in its own book, and then disputed in the following book. The book was developed in the summer of the year 45 BC, and was written over the course of about one and a half months. Together with the Tusculanae Quaestiones written shortly afterwards and the Academica, De finibus bonorum et malorum is one of the most extensive philosophical works of Cicero.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Academic skepticism</span> Skeptical period of ancient Academy

Academic skepticism refers to the skeptical period of the Academy dating from around 266 BCE, when Arcesilaus became scholarch, until around 90 BCE, when Antiochus of Ascalon rejected skepticism, although individual philosophers, such as Favorinus and his teacher Plutarch, continued to defend skepticism after this date. Unlike the existing school of skepticism, the Pyrrhonists, they maintained that knowledge of things is impossible. Ideas or notions are never true; nevertheless, there are degrees of plausibility, and hence degrees of belief, which allow one to act. The school was characterized by its attacks on the Stoics, particularly their dogma that convincing impressions led to true knowledge. The most important Academics were Arcesilaus, Carneades, and Philo of Larissa. The most extensive ancient source of information about Academic skepticism is Academica, written by the Academic skeptic philosopher Cicero.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedanta</span>

Advaita Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism share significant similarities. Those similarities have attracted Indian and Western scholars attention, and have also been criticised by concurring schools. The similarities have been interpreted as Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedanta, though some deny such influences, or see them as expressions of the same eternal truth.

Taoist philosophy also known as Taology refers to the various philosophical currents of Taoism, a tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Dào. The Dào is a mysterious and deep principle that is the source, pattern and substance of the entire universe.

References

  1. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Eclecticism"  . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 887.
  2. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica – in philosophy and theology, the practice of selecting doctrines from different systems of thought without adopting the whole parent system for each doctrine
  3. ↑ ἐκλεκτικός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
  4. ↑ ἐκλεκτός, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
  5. ↑ Zeller, Eduard (2001). Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th edition. Oxon: Routledge. p. 253. ISBN   9781315822976.
  6. ↑ Rošker, Jana; Suhadolnik, Natasa (2011). The Yields of Transition: Literature, Art and Philosophy in Early Medieval China. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 229. ISBN   9781443827140.
  7. ↑ Ashwin-Siejkowski, Piotr (2008). Clement of Alexandria: A Project of Christian Perfection. London: T & T Clark. p. 104. ISBN   9780567032874.
  8. ↑ Leonard K. Eaton, The Architecture of Choice: Eclectism in America, 1880-1910, 1975
  9. ↑ Aland, B. 1994: 138
  10. 1 2 3 "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Eclecticism". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2024-08-14.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Eduard Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, 13th Edition
  12. ↑ Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida, Taylor & Francis, 1998, p. 10: "Victor Cousin's eclectic".
  13. 1 2 "Eclecticism in Therapy | in Chapter 13: Therapies | from Psychology: An Introduction by Russ Dewey". www.intropsych.com. Retrieved 2017-05-03.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.