National conservatism

Last updated

National conservatism is a nationalist variant of conservatism [definition under discussion] that concentrates on upholding national, cultural identity, communitarianism and the public role of religion (see religion in politics). It shares aspects of traditionalist conservatism and social conservatism, while departing from economic liberalism and libertarianism, as well as taking a more pragmatic approach to regulatory economics and protectionism. [1] [2] [3] [4] National conservatives usually combine conservatism with nationalist stances, emphasizing cultural conservatism, family values and opposition to illegal immigration or opposition to immigration per se. [5] [6] [7] National conservative parties often have roots in environments with a rural, traditionalist or peripheral basis, contrasting with the more urban support base of liberal conservative parties. [8]

Contents

In Europe, national conservatives usually embrace some form of Euroscepticism. [9] In post-communist central and eastern Europe specifically, most conservative parties since 1989 have followed a national conservative ideology. [10] Most notable is Viktor Orbán in Hungary, who has explicitly described his Fidesz's ideology as being national conservative in character and whose government is involved in the funding and spread of national conservative institutions across Europe and the United States, such as the Danube Institute, the Mathias Corvinus Collegium, The European Conservative magazine and the National Conservatism Conference. [5] [6] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] In the United States, Trumpism can be considered a variety of national conservatism, [16] [17] [18] which also gives its name to the National Conservatism Conference, organised by the Edmund Burke Foundation. [19]

National conservatism was recently re-launched by Israeli-American political philosopher and Biblical scholar Yoram Hazony, with his 2022 book Conservatism: A Rediscovery . [20] [21] [22] [23] Hazony has written that "In the political arena, conservatism refers to a standpoint that regards the recovery, restoration, elaboration, and repair of national and religious traditions as the key to maintaining a nation and strengthening it through time." [20]

Ideology

National conservatism focuses on "threats to moral order and the loss of moral bearing due to liberalism's relativism." [24] : 1089  It opposes modernity, liberalism, and socialism, instead valuing Europe's Christian heritage [24] : 1099  and "defending" Western civilization. [24] : 1093  National conservatism is silent on classical conservative thought expressed by Michael Oakeshott and Edmund Burke. [24] : 1099  In The Virtue of Nationalism , Yoram Hazony criticizes Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Locke for creating a "dream world" where the "Jewish and Christian world" have "no place to exist". [16] National conservatism rejects standard historiography over the Enlightenment, modernization, and emancipation and key political events such as 1789, 1968, and 1989. National conservatism distances itself from fascism, viewing it along with liberalism and socialism as aspects of modernity and thus "disconnect human designs from normative order", instead calling for the "restoration and order" of social, moral, and political structures. [24] : 1099  Patrick Deneen argues that the "current elite" should be replaced with "a better aristocracy brought about by a muscular populism" to advance the "common good", with the common good loosely defined as "integration" which includes the reuniting of church and state. [16]

Social policies

Ideologically, national conservatism is not a uniform philosophy but adherents have broadly expressed support for nationalism, patriotism, assimilationism and monoculturalism. At the same time there is expressed opposition to internationalism, racial politics, multiculturalism and globalism. [25] [26] [27] National conservatives adhere to a form of cultural nationalism that emphasizes the preservation of national identity as well as cultural identity. As a result, many favor assimilation into the dominant culture, restrictions on immigration and strict law and order policies. [6] [5]

National conservative parties support traditional family values, gender roles and the public role of religion, [5] [28] being critical of the separation of church and state. According to the Austrian political scientist Sieglinde Rosenberger, "national conservatism praises the family as a home and a center of identity, solidarity, and tradition". [28] It opposes the "1968 agenda" of gender-related emancipation. [24] : 1099 

Economic policies

National conservative parties in different countries do not necessarily share a common position on economic policy. Their views may range from support of corporatism [ citation needed ] and mixed economy to a more laissez-faire approach. In the first, more common case, national conservatives can be distinguished from liberal conservatives, [29] for whom free market economic policies, deregulation and tight spending are the main priorities. Some commentators have indeed identified a growing gap between national and economic liberal conservatism: "Most parties of the Right [today] are run by economically liberal conservatives who, in varying degrees, have marginalised social, cultural and national conservatives." [29]

National conservatism developed its economic alternative to liberalism through political representatives in post-communist Europe, most notably Poland and Hungary, and the emergence of "pro-worker conservatism" in the United States. [24] : 1095  Throughout the 1990's, economic positions of national conservatives were largely fusionist. [24] : 1097  The works of Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin have served as building blocks for the modern national conservative movement's socio-economic policies. Strauss' indictment of capitalism as 'economism' through the reduction of individual needs to consumption plays a role in national conservative thought, which argues for solidarism and an increased statist role in the economy to bring about a moralizing "financial nationalism" in opposition to communism and the individualism in liberalism. [24] : 1097–1098  Depending on the country, this can include increased support of protectionism; increased state social spending for "pro-worker" and "pro-family" conservatism; the re-nationalization of banks and strategic enterprises; and opposing tax breaks. [24] : 1098–1099  It supports 'social nativism' in East Asian state-led development as a socio-economic policy paradigm. [24] : 1093 

Foreign policy

National conservatives usually support a foreign policy that upholds the interests of their nation. They lean towards militarism, unilateralism and isolationism. They reject the internationalism and multilateralism that has characterized the modern global age. [30] [31] They often have a negative view of the United Nations, feeling that its globalist agenda erodes their unique national identity, [30] [31] as well as the European Union and other international organizations. [16]

Regionalist varieties

Regional parties can be nationalist or national conservative, without aligning with the country to which the region belongs. South Tyrol is a notable example, as "national conservative" parties there represent its German-speaking majority and identify with neighbouring Austria, with which South Tyrol shares cultural and historical ties.

List of national conservative political parties

Current national conservative parties, or parties with national conservative factions

The following political parties have been characterised as being ideologically influenced by national conservativism:

Defunct or formerly national conservative parties, or parties with national conservative factions

National conservative groups in the European Parliament

See also

Related Research Articles

Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilisation in which it appears. In Western culture, depending on the particular nation, conservatives seek to promote and preserve a range of institutions, such as the nuclear family, organised religion, the military, the nation-state, property rights, rule of law, aristocracy, and monarchy. Conservatives tend to favour institutions and practices that enhance social order and historical continuity.

Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining its sovereignty (self-governance) over its perceived homeland to create a nation-state. It holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity, and that the nation is the only rightful source of political power. It further aims to build and maintain a single national identity, based on a combination of shared social characteristics such as culture, ethnicity, geographic location, language, politics, religion, traditions and belief in a shared singular history, and to promote national unity or solidarity. There are various definitions of a "nation", which leads to different types of nationalism. The two main divergent forms are ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism.

Ultranationalism or extreme nationalism is an extreme form of nationalism in which a country asserts or maintains detrimental hegemony, supremacy, or other forms of control over other nations to pursue its specific interests. Ultranationalist entities have been associated with the engagement of political violence even during peacetime.

Social conservatism is a political philosophy and a variety of conservatism which places emphasis on traditional social structures over social pluralism. Social conservatives organize in favor of duty, traditional values and social institutions, such as traditional family structures, gender roles, sexual relations, national patriotism, and religious traditions. Social conservatism is usually skeptical of social change, instead tending to support the status quo concerning social issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Party of Democratic Action</span> Bosniak political party

The Party of Democratic Action is a Bosniak nationalist, conservative political party in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The left–right political spectrum is a system of classifying political positions, ideologies and parties, with emphasis placed upon issues of social equality and social hierarchy. In addition to positions on the left and on the right, there are centrist and moderate positions, which are not strongly aligned with either end of the spectrum. It originated during the French Revolution based on the seating in the French National Assembly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fidesz</span> Political party in Hungary

Fidesz – Hungarian Civic Alliance is a right-wing populist and national-conservative political party in Hungary led by Viktor Orbán. It has increasingly identified as illiberal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Political colour</span> Colours used to represent a political ideology, movement or party

Political colours are colours used to represent a political ideology, movement or party, either officially or unofficially. They represent the intersection of colour symbolism and political symbolism. Politicians making public appearances will often identify themselves by wearing rosettes, flowers, ties or ribbons in the colour of their political party. Parties in different countries with similar ideologies sometimes use similar colours. As an example the colour red symbolises left-wing ideologies in many countries, while the colour blue is often used for conservatism, the colour yellow is most commonly associated with liberalism and right-libertarianism, and Green politics is named after the ideology's political colour. The political associations of a given colour vary from country to country, and there are exceptions to the general trends, for example red has historically been associated with Christianity, but over time gained association with leftist politics, while the United States differs from other countries in that conservatism is associated with red and liberalism with blue. Mass media has driven a standardisation of colour by political party, to simplify messaging, while historically the colour a candidate chose to identify with could have been chosen based on other factors such as family or regional variations.

The New Democratic Party of Serbia, known as the Democratic Party of Serbia (DSS) until 2022, is a national-conservative political party in Serbia. Miloš Jovanović serves as the current president of NDSS.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Law and Justice</span> Political party in Poland

Law and Justice is a right-wing populist and national-conservative political party in Poland. Its chairman is Jarosław Kaczyński.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European People's Party</span> Centre-right European political party

The European People's Party (EPP) is a European political party with Christian democratic, liberal-conservative, and conservative member parties. A transnational organisation, it is composed of other political parties. Founded by primarily Christian-democratic parties in 1976, it has since broadened its membership to include liberal-conservative parties and parties with other centre-right political perspectives. On 31 May 2022, the party elected as its President Manfred Weber, who was also EPP's Spitzenkandidat in 2019.

Liberal conservatism is a political ideology combining conservative policies with liberal stances, especially on economic issues but also on social and ethical matters, representing a brand of political conservatism strongly influenced by liberalism.

Sovereigntism, sovereignism or souverainism is the notion of having control over one's conditions of existence, whether at the level of the self, social group, region, nation or globe. Typically used for describing the acquiring or preserving political independence of a nation or a region, a sovereigntist aims to "take back control" from perceived powerful forces, either against internal subversive minority groups, or from external global governance institutions, federalism and supranational unions. It generally leans instead toward isolationism, and can be associated with certain independence movements, but has also been used to justify violating the independence of other nations.

A big tent party, or catch-all party, is a term used in reference to a political party having members covering a broad spectrum of beliefs. This is in contrast to other kinds of parties, which defend a determined ideology, seek voters who adhere to that ideology, and attempt to convince people towards it.

Conservative liberalism, also referred to as right-liberalism, is a variant of liberalism combining liberal values and policies with conservative stances, or simply representing the right wing of the liberal movement. In the case of modern conservative liberalism, scholars sometimes see it as a more positive and less radical variant of classical liberalism; it is also referred to as an individual tradition that distinguishes it from classical liberalism and social liberalism. Conservative liberal parties tend to combine economically liberal policies with more traditional stances and personal beliefs on social and ethical issues. Ordoliberalism is an influential component of conservative-liberal thought, particularly in its German, British, French, Italian, and American manifestations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Right-wing populism</span> Political ideology

Right-wing populism, also called national populism and right populism, is a political ideology that combines right-wing politics with populist rhetoric and themes. Its rhetoric employs anti-elitist sentiments, opposition to the Establishment, and speaking to or for the "common people". Recurring themes of right-wing populists include neo-nationalism, social conservatism, economic nationalism and fiscal conservatism. Frequently, they aim to defend a national culture, identity, and economy against perceived attacks by outsiders. Right-wing populism has associations with authoritarianism, while some far right-wing populists draw comparisons to fascism.

Neo-nationalism, or new nationalism, is an ideology and political movement built on the basic characteristics of classical nationalism. It developed to its final form by applying elements with reactionary character generated as a reaction to the political, economic and socio-cultural changes that came with globalization during the second wave of globalization in the 1980s.

References

  1. ↑ ANDREW., HEYWOOD (2018). ESSENTIALS OF POLITICAL IDEAS : for a level. [S.l.]: PALGRAVE. ISBN   978-1137611673. OCLC   1005867754.
  2. ↑ Berkowitz, Peter, ed. (2004). Varieties of conservatism in America. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press. ISBN   0817945725. OCLC   839305105.
  3. ↑ Dahms, Harry F., ed. (7 November 2014). Mediations of social life in the 21st century. Bingle, UK. ISBN   9781784412227. OCLC   896728569.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  4. ↑ https://www.populismstudies.org/Vocabulary/national-conservatism
  5. 1 2 3 4 Sibarium, Aaron (15 August 2019). "National Conservatism: A Guide for the Perplexed". The American Interest . Retrieved 18 January 2024.
  6. 1 2 3 Gallagher, Brenden (11 August 2019). "The national conservatism movement just began—does it have a future?". The Daily Dot . Retrieved 18 January 2024.
  7. ↑ Littlejohn, Brad (Summer 2023). "National Conservatism, Then and Now". National Affairs . Retrieved 18 January 2024.
  8. ↑ Vít Hloušek; Lubomír Kopecek (2010). Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared. Routledge. p. 178. ISBN   978-1-317-08503-4.
  9. ↑ Traynor, Ian, The EU's weary travellers Archived 7 April 2006 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian , 4 April 2006
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Bakke, Elisabeth (2010), "Central and East European party systems since 1989", Central and Southeast European Politics Since 1989, Cambridge University Press, p. 79
  11. ↑ Ferraresi, Mattia (29 January 2024). "Nationalists Claim They Want to Redefine Conservatism, but They're Not Sure What It Is". Foreign Policy . Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  12. ↑ O'Sullivan, John (9 April 2018). "Hungary Embraces National Conservatism". National Review . Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  13. ↑ Chotiner, Isaac (10 August 2021). "Why Conservatives Around the World Have Embraced Hungary's Viktor Orbán". The New Yorker . ISSN   0028-792X . Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  14. ↑ O'Sullivan, John (9 April 2018). "Hungary Embraces National Conservatism - Danube Institute". Danube Institute . Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  15. ↑ Adu, Aletha; Walker, Peter (15 May 2023). "Who are 'national conservatives' and what do they want?" . Retrieved 12 September 2024.
  16. 1 2 3 4 ""National conservatives" are forging a global front against liberalism" . The Economist . London. 15 February 2024. Archived from the original on 20 February 2024. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
  17. ↑ Meaney, Thomas. "Trumpism After Trump: Will the movement outlive the man?". Harper's Magazine. Vol. February 2020. ISSN   0017-789X . Retrieved 8 July 2023.
  18. ↑ Beauchamp, Zack (17 July 2019). "Trump and the dead end of conservative nationalism". Vox. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
  19. ↑ "Overview".
  20. 1 2 Hazony, Yoram (2022). Conservatism: A Rediscovery. Forum. ISBN   978-1800752337.
  21. ↑ Luban, Daniel (26 July 2019). "The Man Behind National Conservatism: Yoram Hazony has written the closest thing to a manifesto for intellectuals on the right". The New Republic . ISSN   0028-6583 . Retrieved 18 January 2024.
  22. ↑ Robinson, Peter M. (22 June 2022). "Yoram Hazony Rediscovers Conservatism". Hoover Institution . Retrieved 18 January 2024.
  23. ↑ Baker, Gerard (18 January 2024). "Yoram Hazony and the Future of Conservatism - Opinion: Free Expression - WSJ Podcasts". The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 18 January 2024.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Varga, Mihai; Buzogány, Aron (September 2022). "The Two Faces of the 'Global Right': Revolutionary Conservatives and National-Conservatives". Critical Sociology . 48 (6). SAGE Publications: 1089–1107. doi: 10.1177/08969205211057020 . ISSN   0896-9205.
  25. ↑ Ferraresi, Mattia (10 April 2020). "Nationalists Claim They Want to Redefine Conservatism, but They're Not Sure What It Is". Foreign Policy. Washington, D.C.: Graham Holdings Company. standing "in stark opposition to political theories grounded in race." Thus, in addition to formulating their political theses around ideas of nationality and values, the national conservatives also include ideas about race, culture, and religion to define their outlooks.
  26. ↑ Franklin, Peter (9 March 2023). "National conservatism has a future in Britain". UnHerd. London.
  27. ↑ MacDougald, Park (19 July 2019). "What the Hell Is 'National Conservatism' Anyway?". New York Magazine. New York City: New York Media.
  28. 1 2 Rosenberger, Sieglinde, Europe is swinging towards the right - What are the effects on women? Archived 28 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine , University of Vienna, 2002. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
  29. 1 2 National Questions, National Review, Vol. 49, Issue 12, 30 June 1997, pp. 16-17
  30. 1 2 Littlejohn, Brad. "National Conservatism, Then and Now". National Affairs. United States: National Affairs, Inc.
  31. 1 2 Dueck, Colin (22 January 2021). "Conservative Nationalism and US Foreign Policy". AEI. American Enterprise Institute.
  32. ↑ Provisions of RPA Program Archived 9 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine , Republican Party of Armenia, 2008.
  33. ↑ Gerard Braunthal (2009). Right-Wing Extremism in Contemporary Germany. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 158. ISBN   978-0-230-25116-8.
  34. ↑ Oliver Rathkolb (2010). The Paradoxical Republic: Austria 1945-2005. Berghahn Books. p. 11. ISBN   978-1-78238-396-3.
  35. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). www.tai.org.au. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  36. ↑ Thompson, Wayne C. (2008). Western Europe 2008 . Stryker Post Pubns. p.  201. ISBN   978-1-887985-98-7.
  37. ↑ "Partido progressista afirma que quer atrair eleitor conservador".
  38. ↑ Aflaki, Inga N. (2016). Entrepreneurship in the Polis. Routledge.
  39. ↑ Tomic, Caroline (2018). Remigration to Post-Socialist Europe. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 116.
  40. ↑ ""Jsme pro EU, ale…" Havlíček vysvětluje nové ideologické směřování ANO - Seznam Zprávy". 4 May 2023.
  41. ↑ Moreau, Patrick (2011). "The Victorious Parties - Unity in Diversity?". In Uwe Backes, Patrick Moreau (ed.). The Extreme Right in Europe: Current Trends and Perspectives. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 101. ISBN   9783647369228.
  42. ↑ "New antimuslim party heading for Danish parliament while neofascists and anti-Semites take it to the streets". 13 March 2019.
  43. ↑ Siitonen, Aaretti (2009), "Flags and hymns are not for Finns: An analysis of the European elections in Finland before the fact" (PDF), The Finnish Institute of International Affairs , p. 4, archived from the original (PDF) on 2 August 2017, retrieved 13 May 2018
  44. ↑ "Jean-Yves Camus". Lefigaro.fr. 13 April 2015. Retrieved 29 October 2018.
  45. ↑ Mayeur, Jean-Marie (1987). The Third Republic from Its Origins to the Great War, 1871-1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 298.
  46. ↑ Simon Franzmann (2015). "The Failed Struggle for Office Instead of Votes". In Gabriele D'Ottavio; Thomas Saalfeld (eds.). Germany After the 2013 Elections: Breaking the Mould of Post-Unification Politics?. Ashgate. pp. 166–167. ISBN   978-1-4724-4439-4.
  47. ↑ Baumgartl, Bernd (1995). New Xenophobia in Europe. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 139.
  48. ↑ "High single-digit difference between ND, SYRIZA in new poll on Thurs". Naftemporiki . 16 May 2019.
  49. ↑ "Νέα Δεξιά, το κόμμα του Φ. Κρανιδιώτη". Kathimerini (in Greek). 14 May 2016.
  50. 1 2 Vít Hloušek; Lubomír Kopecek (2010). Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared. Routledge. p. 171. ISBN   978-1-317-08503-4.
  51. 1 2 3 András Körösényi (1999). Government and Politics in Hungary. Central European University Press. pp. 31–32. ISBN   978-963-9116-76-4.
  52. ↑ Pytlas, Bartek (2015). Radical Right Parties in Central and Eastern Europe: Mainstream Party Competition and Electoral Fortune. Routledge. p. 36.
  53. ↑ Bonikowska, Monika (2014). "India After The Elections". Centre for International Relations (6): 2. Archived from the original on 24 September 2017. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
  54. ↑ Misra, Amalendu (1999). "Savarkar and the Discourse on Islam in Pre-Independent India". Journal of Asian History. 33 (2): 175.
  55. ↑ Lee, Doreen (2016). Activist Archives: Youth Culture and the Political Past in Indonesia. Duke University Press.
  56. ↑ Hitchcock, Michael (1997). Images of Malay-Indonesian Identity. OUP. p. 101.
  57. ↑ "The short life of the "National Unity Government"" (PDF). Konrad Adenauer Foundation . July 2012. p. 1.
  58. ↑ Watzal, Ludwig (1999). Peace enemies: the past and present conflict between Israel and Palestine. PASSIA. p. 28.
  59. ↑ Andrea Carla (2016). "Tensions and Challenges between New and Old minorities: Political Party Discourses on Migration in South Tyrol". In Roberta Medda-Windischer; Patricia Popelier (eds.). Pro-independence Movements and Immigration: Discourse, Policy and Practice. BRILL. p. 70. ISBN   978-90-04-29439-4.
  60. ↑ "Japan's ruling conservatives have been returned to power, but amid voter frustration, challenges lurk for Kishida". The Conversation . 1 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021. Japan's ruling conservative nationalist Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) will remain comfortably in power under its new prime minister Fumio Kishida, after the weekend's national election.
  61. ↑ Ganesan (2015). Bilateral Legacies in East and Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 67.
  62. ↑ Stefanini, Sara (5 February 2017). "Liechtenstein's Populists Gain Ground". Politico . Retrieved 5 February 2017.
  63. ↑ Jan Senkyr (2013). "Political Awakening in Malaysia". KAS International Reports (7): 73–74. the UMNO can be described as a national conservative Islamic party
  64. ↑ Haynes, Jeffrey (2019). The Routledge Handbook to Religion and Political Parties. Routledge.
  65. ↑ Staab, Steffen (2018). Social Informatics. Springer. p. 102.
  66. ↑ Klaus Wahl (2020). The Radical Right: Biopsychosocial Roots and International Variations. Springer Nature. p. 201. ISBN   978-3-030-25131-4.
  67. ↑ Heywood, Andrew (2017). Political Ideologies: An Introduction. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 93.
  68. ↑ "Det finnes bare et nasjonalkonservativt folkeparti i Norge!". 26 July 2020.
  69. ↑ "Pakistan Muslim League N". pmln.org. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
  70. ↑ "Global Election Review 2019" (PDF). Solace Global. 2019. p. 4.
  71. ↑ Koch, Mark (21 April 2013). "Return of the conservatives". Deutsche Welle .
  72. ↑ Teehankee, Julio (2016). "Weak State, Strong Presidents: Situating the Duterte Presidency in Philippine Political Time". Journal of Developing Societies. 3 (3).
  73. ↑ Vít Hloušek; Lubomír Kopecek (2010). Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN   978-1-317-08503-4.
  74. ↑ Krzypinski, Dariusz (2017). Ruxandra Boicu; et al. (eds.). Patterns of Recruitment of Polish Candidates in the 2014 European Parliament Elections. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 245.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  75. ↑ "Sejm und Senat: Zur Urne in der Woiwodschaft Lubuskie" (in German). MOZ.de. 10 October 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
  76. ↑ Monika Sieradzka (11 October 2019). "Regierungspartei PiS ist der Favorit". Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk .
  77. 1 2 Henningsen, Bernd; Etzold, Tobias; Hanne, Krister, eds. (15 September 2017). The Baltic Sea Region: A Comprehensive Guide: History, Politics, Culture and Economy of a European Role Model. Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag. p. 352. ISBN   978-3-8305-1727-6.
  78. ↑ David Art (2011), "Memory Politics in Western Europe", in Uwe Backes; Patrick Moreau (eds.), The Extreme Right in Europe, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, p. 364, ISBN   978-3-525-36922-7
  79. ↑ "Socialist Antonio Costa wins Portugal election, will continue 'contraption' coalition". Euronews . 7 October 2019.
  80. ↑ Narcis George Matache (3 May 2018). "Top 30 partide politice din România". The New Federalist.
  81. ↑ "Elections 2020: A small victory for the right, but Romania won't deviate from its Western path".
  82. ↑ "The Center Holds in Romania, but a New Far-Right Party Spells Trouble". 24 December 2020.
  83. ↑ "Mihail Neamțu, după atentatul de la Londra | Marea moschee comandată de Erdogan în mijlocul Bucureştiului trebuie să fie un proiect mort şi îngropat". 23 March 2017.
  84. ↑ "Traian Băsescu: "PMP nu va fi de acord cu transformarea UE într-o uriaşă moschee"".
  85. ↑ "VIDEO Traian Băsescu: Sunt un adversar neîmpăcat al transformării Europei într-o moschee / Laicizarea începe să devină o vulnerabilitate - Alegeri Europarlamentare 2019 - HotNews.ro". 21 May 2019.
  86. ↑ "People's Movement Party (PMP)". The Democratic Society. 19 May 2014. Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
  87. ↑ "Parlamentarii PMP s-au întâlnit cu membri ai Congresului SUA: Susținem familia tradițională". 26 July 2017. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
  88. ↑ "Referendumul pentru familie: Cum se poziţionează politicienii faţă de evenimentul din weekend".
  89. ↑ "Russia parliament elections: How the parties line up". BBC News Online . BBC. 6 March 2012. Retrieved 11 May 2017.
  90. ↑ Sakwa, Richard (2013). Power and Policy in Putin's Russia. Routledge. p. 7. ISBN   9781317989943 . Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  91. ↑ "Is 'National Conservatism' the New Ideology of the Russian People? / Diena". Diena.lv. Retrieved 29 October 2018.
  92. ↑ Bluhm, Katharina (2018). New Conservatives in Russia and East Central Europe. Routledge.
  93. ↑ "Russia election: Who are Vladimir Putin's challengers?". Deutsche Welle . 8 February 2018.
  94. ↑ Berger, Mark (2014). Rethinking the Third World. Macmillan. p. 98.
  95. ↑ "Korean Dilemma". The Statesman (India) . 16 March 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2023. Politically, the conservatives are on the rise in South Korea, and the country has just elected its new President, Yoon Suk-yeol, from the nationalist-conservative, People Power Party (PPP).
  96. ↑ Peter Starke; Alexandra Kaasch; Franca Van Hooren (2013). The Welfare State as Crisis Manager: Explaining the Diversity of Policy Responses to Economic Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 194. ISBN   978-1-137-31484-0.
  97. ↑ Daniel Kübler; Urs Scheuss; Philippe Rochat (2013). "The Metropolitan Bases of Political Cleavage in Switzerland". In Jefferey M. Sellers; Daniel Kübler; R. Alan Walks; Melanie Walter-Rogg (eds.). The Political Ecology of the Metropolis: Metropolitan Sources of Electoral Behaviour in Eleven Countries. ECPR Press. p. 211. ISBN   978-1-907301-44-5.
  98. ↑ "Tsai wants to continue her balancing act". International Politics and Society Journal. 13 January 2020.
  99. ↑ "Thailand". De Agostini . Archived from the original on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2020. PPP (Palang Pracharath, People's State Power Party, conservative nationalist)
  100. ↑ "Thailand election: Campaign freebies may be a 'band-aid solution' with fiscal risks". CNBC. 8 May 2023. Even if the ultra-conservative United Thai Nation Party wins, it would be unable to form a coalition government without Bhumjaithai Party
  101. ↑ Bayat, Asef (2013). Post-Islamism. Oxford University Press. p. 11.
  102. ↑ "Erdoğan's Triumph". Financial Times . 24 July 2007. Archived from the original on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2018. The AKP is now a national conservative party — albeit rebalancing power away from the westernised urban elite and towards Turkey's traditional heartland of Anatolia — as well as the Muslim equivalent of Europe's Christian Democrats.
  103. ↑ Carkoglu, Ali (2004). Turkey and the European Union: Domestic Politics, Economic Integration and International Dynamics. Routledge. p. 127.
  104. ↑ "++ In Türkei festgenommene Deutsche wieder frei ++ Erdogan zum Sieger erklärt++". watson. 25 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
  105. ↑ "Auszählung in der Türkei läuft: Erdogans Vorsprung schmilzt". Weser-Kurier. 24 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
  106. ↑ "Schüsse! Politiker der Opposition bei Wahl getötet". Morgenpost. 24 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
  107. ↑ "Nach Erdogan-Wahl und Diktator-Vergleich: EU-Beitrittsverhandlungen "zum Stillstand gekommen"". Kreiszeitung. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
  108. ↑ "Türkei-Wahlen: Oppositionspolitiker in Osttürkei getötet". Rhein-Neckar-Zeitung. 24 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
  109. ↑ [104] [105] [106] [107] [108]
  110. ↑ "Svoboda: The rise of Ukraine's ultra-nationalists". BBC News. 26 December 2012.
  111. ↑ "Ярош, Тягнибок та Білецький таки сформували єдиний список на вибори". 9 June 2019.
  112. ↑ O'Reilly, Gerry (2019). Aligning Geopolitics, Humanitarian Action and Geography in Times of Conflict. Springer. p. 47.
  113. ↑ Chait, Jonathan (12 October 2022). "How to Make a Semi-Fascist Party". New York Magazine. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  114. ↑ Goldman, Rene (2017). A Childhood Adrift. Azrieli Foundation.
  115. ↑ Heywood, Andrew (2018). Essentials of Political Ideas. Palgrave. p. 58.
  116. ↑ Roett, Riordan (1999). Brazil: Politics in a Patrimonial Society . p.  36.
  117. ↑ Anne Griffin (1984). Quebec, the Challenge of Independence. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 27. ISBN   978-0-8386-3135-5.
  118. ↑ Hloušek, Vít; Kopeček, Lubomír (2010). Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties: East-Central and Western Europe Compared. Farnham, Surrey and Burlington, VT: Ashgate. p. 165.
  119. ↑ Hloušek, Vít (2016). Origin, Ideology and Transformation of Political Parties. Routledge. p. 165.
  120. ↑ Gary Marks; Carole Wilson (2005). "National parties and the contestation of Europe". In Thomas Banchoff; Mitchell Smith (eds.). Legitimacy and the European Union: The Contested Polity. Routledge. p. 130. ISBN   978-1-134-67560-9.
  121. ↑ Ulrike Ehret (2012). "The Catholic right, political Catholicism and radicalism: the Catholic right in Germany". Church, Nation and Race: Catholics and Antisemitism in Germany and England, 1918-45. Manchester University Press. ISBN   978-1-84779-452-9.
  122. ↑ Stone, Jon (24 September 2017). "German elections: Far-right wins MPs for first time in half a century" . The Independent. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
  123. ↑ "Neue konservative Partei: Petry bekennt sich öffentlich zur Gründung der "Blauen Partei"". MDR.de (in German). 12 October 2017. Archived from the original on 13 October 2017. Retrieved 12 October 2017.
  124. ↑ Stiftung, Bertelsmann (2009). Strategies for Combating Right-wing Extremism in Europe. Brookings Institution Press. p. 183.
  125. ↑ Häkkinen, Ville (2019). From Counterrevolution to Consolidation?. JYU. p. 99.
  126. ↑ Baxter, Craig (1969). The Jana Sangh: a biography of an Indian political party . University of Pennsylvania Press. p.  171. ISBN   9780812275834.
  127. ↑ Matin-Asgard, Afshin (2018). Both Eastern and Western. CUP. p. 243.
  128. ↑ Marco Tarchi (2007), "Recalcitrant Allies: The Conflicting Foreign Policy Agenda of the Alleanza Nazionale and the Lega Nord", Europe for the Europeans, Ashgate, p. 188
  129. ↑ Robert Leonardi (2017). Government and Politics of Italy. Macmillan International Higher Education. p. 154. ISBN   978-1-349-93231-3.[ permanent dead link ]
  130. ↑ Tom Lansford, ed. (2013). Political Handbook of the World 2013. SAGE Publications. p. 715. ISBN   978-1-4522-5825-6.
  131. ↑ Sjølyst-Jackson, Peter (2010). Troubling Legacies: Migration, Modernism and Fascism in the Case of Knut Hamsun. Bloomsbury Academic.
  132. ↑ Bohler, Jochen (2019). Civil War in Central Europe, 1918-1921: The Reconstruction of Poland. Oxford University Press. p. 99.
  133. ↑ Jean-Michel De Waele; Anna Pacześniak (2012). "The Europeanisation of Poland's Political Parties and Party System". In Erol Külahci (ed.). Europeanisation and Party Politics: How the EU affects Domestic Actors, Patterns and Systems. ECPR Press. p. 131. ISBN   978-1-907301-84-1.
  134. ↑ Gwiazda, Anna (2015). Democracy in Poland. Routledge. national conservative League of Polish Families (LPR) had a high percentage of women
  135. ↑ Sawicka, Joanna; Skibicki, Juliusz; Szacki, Wojciech (3 November 2015). "Kto jest kim u Kukiza". polityka.pl. Polityka . Retrieved 13 December 2017.
  136. ↑ Rossolinski, Grzegorz (2014). Stepan Bandera: The Life and Afterlife of a Ukrainian Nationalist. Columbia University Press. p. 33.
  137. ↑ "Ludovic Orban: PNL trebuie să sprijine valorile tradiţionale ale românilor - familia, biserica, satul / Avem nişte parteneri de guvernare care parcă nu s-au născut aici - Politic - HotNews.ro". 4 July 2021.
  138. ↑ "Bătălia din PNL intră în faza ideologică. Ludovic Orban propune o orientare conservatoare, bazată pe biserică, familie, drapel și sat. Atac la USR: "Avem nişte parteneri de guvernare care de multe ori parcă nu s-au născut aici"". 4 July 2021.
  139. ↑ Moldova, Europa Liberă (5 July 2021). "În lupta pentru șefia PNL din România, liderul partidului, Ludovic Orban vrea să întărească aripa conservatoare". Radio Europa Liberă.
  140. ↑ "Ovidiu Raețchi (PNL): Ludovic Orban a ajuns să meargă pe drumul toxic al lui Viktor Orban". 4 July 2021.
  141. ↑ "Pronostic. Alegerile din 2024, pe scena politică românească: Conservatorii PNL și PMP, contra progresiștii de la USR-PLUS". 21 March 2021.
  142. ↑ "Rareş Bogdan: Nu suntem de acord cu înfierea copiilor de către cupluri ale minorităţilor sexuale, pentru că lucrul ăsta e o chestie care schimbă lumea/ Dacă cineva crede că va putea nouă să ne răpească bucuria de a spune "mamă", "tată", se înşală". 21 March 2021.
  143. ↑ Camus, Jean-Yves (2016). Far-Right Politics in Europe. Harvard University Press. p. 242.
  144. ↑ Bátora, Jozef (11 June 2010), "Hungary is the main issue in the Slovakian elections", Toute l'Europe, archived from the original on 13 February 2013, retrieved 31 January 2012
  145. ↑ Krabill, Ron (2010). Starring Mandela and Cosby: Media and the End(s) of Apartheid . University of Chicago Press. p.  51.
  146. ↑ 《현대 한국정치 이론: 역사 현실 1945 ~ 2011》240p ~ 265p
  147. ↑ Jun-Hyeok Kwak (11 June 2013). "Nationalism and Democracy Revisited" (PDF). Soongsil University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  148. ↑ Blinkhorn, Martin (2002), Democracy and Civil War in Spain 1932-1939, Routledge, p. 140
  149. ↑ Dudek, Carolyn Marie (2005). EU Accession and Spanish Regional Development. Peter Lang. p. 47.
  150. ↑ Kuljić, Todor (2017). Post-Yugoslav Memory Culture. Lambert. p. 14.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.