Conservatism in South Korea

Conservatism in South Korea is a political and social philosophy characterised by Korean culture and from Confucianism, as well as from the Western culture due to the intense Westernisation of the country. South Korean conservative parties largely believe in stances such as a Developmental State, Economic Liberalism, Strong National Defence, anti-communism, pro-communitarianism, pro-Western (consisting of pro-United States, pro-European, pro-NATO, pro-United Kingdom and pro-CANZUK views) in foreign relations, giving assistance to anti-communist North Korean defectors, supporting international sanctions and opposing the human rights abuses in North Korea.

Starting from the dictatorship of Syngman Rhee, South Korean conservatism has been influenced from the military dictatorships of Park Chung-hee and Chun Doo-hwan. In domestic policy, South Korean conservatism has a strong elitist streak and promotes rapid modernisation and social stability. ^[1]

Since the mid-to-late 2010s, conservatives with right-wing populist tendencies have become more prominent in the public sphere. Hong Joon-pyo and Han Dong-hoon are notable examples of a right-wing populist in Korea.

Unlike conservatives in the Anglosphere, conservatives in South Korea often define themselves as liberals. Both groups fervently denounce socialism and refer to themselves as anti-socialists. They are distinct from the general liberals in South Korea. ^{[2] [3] [4]}

Values

Domestic issues

Conservatives are more likely to support upholding the National Security Act. ^[5]

The anti-communist tendencies of South Korean conservatives has led to perceptions by progressives and liberals that conservatives fostering McCarthyist-like red scares among the public in order to score political points. ^{[6] [7] [ clarification needed ]} This includes an incident before the 1996 Legislative elections, where conservative lawmakers were arrested for secretly meeting with North Korean agents in Beijing to seek North's help in manipulating the outcome of the election in exchange for payoffs. ^[8] The North fired artillery into the Join Security Zone on the DMZ, which caused panic among South Korean electorates, benefiting the conservative party. ^[8]

International issues

Conservatism in South Korea is fervently anti-communist. South Korean conservatives oppose warming relations with North Korea, and therefore wish to strengthen the US-ROK alliance and South Korea-United Kingdom relations in order to improve South Korean security, in contrast to South Korean progressives who prefer détente with North Korea through the Sunshine Policy along with either maintaining the US-ROK alliance or softening it as well as pursuing a hostile policy towards Japan. ^[9] However, there is a split between moderates and hardliners among conservatives, with the former emphasizing humanitarian issues related to North Korean defectors and identifying themselves as liberals, while the latter, in possible addition to the former, takes up the traditional aggressive emphasis on anti-communism and pro-Americanism. ^[5]

History

Before democratisation in 1987, South Korean conservatives were characterised not only by anti-communism, but also authoritarianism and developmentalism. After 1987, there was a trend in conservatism towards rebranding as the New Right and focusing on economic neoliberalism. In addition, conservatives adapted to the new democratic environment by increasing the number of conservative activist groups and online presence. ^[5]

Following 1987, the South Korean public became less interested in issues such as class and politics than in the past, and thus, overall, both progressives and conservatives shifted their messaging; the former shifted from radical politics to supporting the likes of social democracy and welfare expansion, whereas the latter emphasised neoliberal values such as "freedom, capabilities, and competition of individuals". ^[5]

The large city of Daegu, although a site of radical politics in the earlier postwar era, was transformed under the rule of Daegu-born Park Chung-hee and today has been called a "citadel of conservatism" in South Korea. ^[10]

Following the success of Lee Myung-bak in the 2007 presidential election, some viewed it as a return to conservatism in South Korea after a decade of rule under progressive presidents, although an analysis by David C. Kang let him to argue that it was a turn towards centrism among the populace, given Lee's pragmatic business-minded tendencies, rather than traditional "arch-conservatism" of candidate Lee Hoi-chang. For instance, Lee pursued a more constructive and realistic foreign policy relationship with China in contrast to what more strident anti-communists would prefer, indicating the modern unpracticality of demonising China, even among conservative heads of state. During the campaigning seasons, Lee's aides also worked to present his approach as being "neither left nor right". ^[11]

Jeong Tae-heon, a professor of Korean history at Korea University has expressed concerns that disputes over the term Jayuminjujuui (Korean : 자유민주주의;lit. "liberal democracy" or "free and democracy") reflect a strong conservative bias reacting against North Korea's political ideologies, similar to political views seen in 1950. ^[12] The term liberal democracy as used by South Korean conservatives has a different connotation than in the Anglosphere, as its reflects the anti-communism and state-guided economic develop of the pre-1987 era. ^[5]

In 2020, People Power Party's leader Kim Chong-in apologized for the Gwangju Uprising. ^[13] But some conservative citizen groups such as the Korean Council for Restoration National Identity and American and Korean Friendship National Council protested at UNESCO headquarters in Paris in May 2011 to prevent inscribing the records of the Gwangju Uprising in the Memory of the World Register, and to petition for "reconsidering identifying North Korean Special Forces as the perpetrators of the GDM. ^[14]

Conservative parties

The political party that once were ruling party are in bold. KIP is the exception for being a ruling party during Provisional Governmental era.

Mainstream parties

• National Alliance for the Rapid Realization of Korean Independence (1946–1958; Governing period: 1948–1950)
• Korea Nationalist Party (1948–1958; Governing years: 1950–1954)
• Liberal Party (1951–1970; Governing period: 1954–1960)
• Democratic Republican Party (1963–1980)

• Korean National Party → New Democratic Republican Party (1980–1990)

• Democratic Justice Party (1980–1990 also as governing period)
• Democratic Liberal Party → New Korea Party (1990–1997)

• United Liberal Democrats (1992–2006)

• Grand National Party → Saenuri Party → Liberty Korea Party (1997–2020; Governing period: 2007–2017)

• Liberty Forward Party → Advancement Unification Party (2006–2012)
• Pro-Park Coalition → Future Hope Alliance (2007–2012)
• Bareun Party (2016–2018)
• Bareunmirae Party (2018–2020)
• New Conservative Party (2020)

• United Future Party → People Power Party (since 2020; Governing period: 2022-present)

• Future Korea Party (satellite party for the 2020 election)

Minor parties

• Korea Independence Party (1928–1970)
• Korean National Youth Association (1946-1949)
• Federation Korean National Independence (1947–1951)
• Korea National Party (1947–1958)
• Conservative Party (1963)
• Righteous Citizens Party → Justice Party (1963–1967)
• New People's Association → People's Party (1963–1971)
• New Political Reform Party (1992)
• United People's Party → Democratic Party (1992–1995)
• Democratic Republican Party (1997–2009)
• New Korea Party of Hope (2000–2001)
• National Integration 21 (2004)
• People First Party (2005–2008)
• Pro-Park United (2006–2012)
• Party of Future Union (2010–2012)
• Go! Party for the Grand People (2011–2012)
• Korea Vision Party (2012)
• Hannara Party (2012–2016)
• Chinbak Yeondae (since 2012)
• Ghana Anti-Communist Korean Party (since 2012)
• Republican Party (2014–2020)
• Patriotic Party → United Korean Party → New National Participation Party (since 2015)
• Korean National Party (2016–2020)
• Pro-Ban Unification Party → Korea Economic Party → Free Korea 21 → Liberty and Democracy Party (since 2016)
• Evergreen Korea Party (2017–2018)
• Saenuri Party (since 2017)
• New Korean Peninsula Party (since 2017)
• Dawn of Liberty Party (since 2019)
• People Party (2020–2022)
• Liberty Party (2020–2024)
• Our Republican Party (since 2020)
• Pro-Park New Party (since 2020)
• Future of Chungcheong Province Party (since 2020)
• Freedom and Innovation Party (since 2025)

Conservative media in South Korea

The Chojoongdong media cartel wields the largest political influence in the South Korean political scene through newspaper and other print publications. The three media cartels have been criticized for fabricating stories against North Korea to support conservative rhetoric.

• Chosun Ilbo – right-wing, anti-communist and conservative
  • TV Chosun (broadcasting)
• Dong-a Ilbo – right-wing, conservative
  • Channel A (broadcasting)
• JoongAng Ilbo – centre-right, moderate conservative and pro-Chaebol
  • Korea JoongAng Daily (English-language newspapers)
  • JTBC (broadcasting)
• Korea Economic Daily – pro-business and conservative
• Kukmin Ilbo – centrist, Christian values
• Maeil Business Newspaper – pro-business
• Munhwa Ilbo – right-wing, conservative and pro-Chaebol
• Segye Ilbo - right-wing, pro-Unification Church

Conservative presidents

• Rhee Syng-man (Liberal Party, 1948–1960)
• Park Chung-hee (Military junta/Democratic Republican Party, 1962–1979)
• Chun Doo-hwan (Military junta/Democratic Justice Party, 1980–1988)
• Roh Tae-woo (Democratic Justice Party→Democratic Liberal Party, 1988–1993)
• Kim Young-sam (Democratic Liberal Party→New Korea Party→Grand National Party, 1993–1998)
• Lee Myung-bak (Grand National Party→Saenuri Party, 2008–2013)
• Park Geun-hye (Saenuri Party→Liberty Korea Party, 2013–2017)
• Yoon Suk-yeol (People Power Party, 2022–2025)

Major conservative parties election results of South Korea

Election	Candidate	Total votes	Share of votes	Outcome	Party Name
1948	Rhee Syng-man	180 (electoral vote)	91.8%	ElectedY	NARKKI
	Kim Gu	13 (electoral vote)	6.7%	DefeatedN	Korean Independence Party
1952	Rhee Syng-man	5,238,769	74.6%	ElectedY	Liberal Party
1956	Rhee Syng-man	5,046,437	70.0%	ElectedY	Liberal Party
March 1960	Rhee Syng-man	9,633,376	100.0%	ElectedY	Liberal Party
August 1960	no candidate	—
1963	Park Chung-hee	4,702,640	46.6%	ElectedY	Democratic Republican Party
1967	Park Chung-hee	5,688,666	51.4%	ElectedY	Democratic Republican Party
1971	Park Chung-hee	6,342,828	53.2%	ElectedY	Democratic Republican Party
1972	Park Chung-hee	2,357 (electoral vote)	99.91	ElectedY	Democratic Republican Party
1978	Park Chung-hee	2,578 (electoral vote)	99.96%	ElectedY	Democratic Republican Party
1981	Chun Doo-hwan	4,755 (electoral vote)	90.2%	ElectedY	Democratic Justice Party
1987	Roh Tae-woo	8,282,738	36.6%	ElectedY	Democratic Justice Party
	Kim Jong-pil	1,823,067	8.1%	DefeatedN	New Democratic Republican Party
1992	Kim Young-sam	9,977,332	42.0%	ElectedY	Democratic Liberal Party
	Chung Ju-yung	3,880,067	16.3%	DefeatedN	United People's Party
1997	Lee Hoi-chang	9,935,718	38.7%	DefeatedN	Grand National Party
	Lee In-je	4,925,591	19.2%	DefeatedN	New National Party
2002	Lee Hoi-chang	11,443,297	46.5%	DefeatedN	Grand National Party
2007	Lee Myung-bak	11,492,389	48.7%	ElectedY	Grand National Party
	Lee Hoi-chang	3,559,963	15.1%	DefeatedN	Independent
2012	Park Geun-hye	15,773,128	51.6%	ElectedY	Saenuri Party
2017	Hong Jun-pyo	7,852,849	24.03%	DefeatedN	Liberty Korea Party
	Yoo Seung-min	2,208,771	6.76%	DefeatedN	Bareun Party
	Cho Won-jin	42,949	0.13%	DefeatedN	Saenuri Party
	Lee Jae-oh	9,140	0.03%	DefeatedN	Evergreen Korea Party
	Oh Young-guk	6,040	0.02%	DefeatedN	Korea Economic Party
2022	Yoon Suk-yeol	16,394,815	48.56%	ElectedY	People Power Party
	Cho Won-jin	25,972	0.08%	DefeatedN	Our Republican Party
	Kim Gyeong-jae	8,317	0.02%	DefeatedN	New Liberal Democratic Union
	Ok Un-ho	4,970	0.01%	DefeatedN	Saenuri Party
2025	Kim Moon-soo	14,395,639	41.15%	DefeatedN	People Power Party
	Lee Jun-seok	2,917,523	8.34%	DefeatedN	Reform Party

General elections

Election	Total seats won	Total votes	Share of votes	Outcome of election	Status	Election leader	Party Name
1948	55 / 200	1,755,543	26.1	new 55 seats; Minority	in government	Rhee Syng-man	NARRKI
1950	24 / 210	677,173	9.7	new 24 seats; Minority	in government	Yun Chi-young	Korea Nationalist Party
	14 / 210	473,153	6.8	41 seats; Minority	in government	Rhee Syng-man	National Association
	0 / 210	17,745	0.3	new 0 seats; Minority	in opposition		Korea Independence Party
1954	114 / 203	2,756,061	36.8	new 114 seats; Majority	in government	Rhee Syng-man	Liberal Party
	3 / 210	192,109	2.6	11 seats; Minority	in government		National Association
	3 / 203	72,923	1.0	21 seats; Minority	in government	Yun Chi-young	Korea Nationalist Party
1958	126 / 233	3,607,092	42.1	12 seats; Majority	in government	Rhee Syng-man	Liberal Party
	0 / 233	50,568	0.6	3 seats; Minority	in government	Rhee Syng-man	National Association
1960	2 / 233	249,960	2.8	124 seats; Minority	in opposition	Rhee Syng-man	Liberal Party
	0 / 233	26,649	0.3	new 0 seats; Minority	in opposition		Korea Independence Party
1963	110 / 175	3,112,985	33.5%	new 110 seats; Majority	in government	Park Chung-hee	Democratic Republican Party
	0 / 175	1,122,357 Conservative Party: 278,477 LP: 271,820 Righteous Citizens Party: 259,960 Autumn Wind Association: 183,938 KIP: 128,162	12.1%	extra-parliamentary	in opposition	–	Others
1967	129 / 175	5,494,922	50.6%	19 seats; Majority	in government	Park Chung-hee	Democratic Republican Party
	0 / 175	957,378 LP: 393,448 KIP: 240,936 People's Party: 180,324 Justice Party: 142,670	8.8%	extra-parliamentary	in opposition	–	Others
1971	113 / 204	5,460,581	48.8%	16 seats; Majority	in government	Park Chung-hee	Democratic Republican Party
1973	146 / 219	4,251,754	38.7%	40 seats; Majority	in government	Park Chung-hee	Democratic Republican Party
1978	145 / 231	4,695,995	31.7%	2 seats; Majority	in government	Park Chung-hee	Democratic Republican Party
1981	151 / 276	5,776,624	35.6%	new 151 seats; Majority	in government	Chun Doo-hwan	Democratic Justice Party
	25 / 276	2,147,293	13.2%	new 15 seats; Minority	in opposition	Kim Jong-cheol	Korean National Party
1985	148 / 276	7,040,811	34.0%	3 seats; Majority	in government	Chun Doo-hwan	Democratic Justice Party
	20 / 276	1,828,744	9.2%	5 seats; Minority	in opposition	Kim Jong-cheol	Korean National Party
1988	125 / 299	6,675,494	34.0%	23 seats; Minority	in government	Roh Tae-woo	Democratic Justice Party
	35 / 299	3,062,506	15.6%	new 35 seats; Minority	in opposition (1988-1990)	Kim Jong-pil	New Democratic Republican Party
					in government (1990-1993)
	0 / 299	65,032	0.3%	20 seats; extra-parliamentary	in opposition	Lee Man-sup	Korean National Party
1992	149 / 299	7,923,719	38.5%	new 149 seats; Minority	in government	Roh Tae-woo	Democratic Liberal Party
	31 / 299	3,574,419	17.4%	new 31 seats; Minority	in opposition	Chung Ju-yung	United People's Party
1996	139 / 299	6,783,730	34.5%	new 139 seats; Minority	in government (1996-1998)	Kim Young-sam	New Korea Party
					in opposition (1998-2000)
	50 / 299	3,178,474	16.2%	new 50 seats; Minority	in opposition (1996-1998)	Kim Jong-pil	United Liberal Democrats
					in government (1998-2000)
2000	133 / 273	7,365,359	39.0%	new 133 seats; Minority	in opposition	Lee Hoi-chang	Grand National Party
	17 / 273	1,859,331	9.8%	35 seats; Minority	in government (2000-2001)	Kim Jong-pil	United Liberal Democrats
					in opposition (2001-2004)
	3 / 273	695,423	3.7%	new 3 seats; Minority	in opposition	Cho Soon	Democratic People's Party
	1 / 273	77,498	0.4%	new 1 seats; Minority	in opposition	Kim Yong-hwan Heo Hwa-pyeong	New Korea Party of Hope
	0 / 273	3,950	0.0%	new 0 seats; extra-parliamentary	in opposition	Heo Kyung-young	Democratic Republican Party
2004	121 / 299	7,613,660	35.8%	24 seats; Minority	in opposition	Park Geun-hye	Grand National Party
	4 / 299	600,462	2.8%	6 seats; Minority	in opposition	Kim Jong-pil	United Liberal Democrats
	0 / 299	144,106 NI21: 119,746 DRP: 24,360	0.68%	extra-parliamentary	in opposition	–	Others
2008	153 / 299	6,421,654	37.5%	32 seats; Majority	in government	Kang Jae-seop	Grand National Party
	18 / 299	1,173,463	6.8%	new 18 seats; Minority	in government	Lee Hoi-chang	Liberty Forward Party
	14 / 299	2,258,750	13.2%	new 14 seats; Minority	in government	Suh Chung-won	Pro-Park Coalition
2012	152 / 300	9,130,651	42.8%	new 152 seats; Majority	in government	Park Geun-hye	Saenuri Party
	5 / 300	690,754	3.2%	13 seats; Minority	in government	Sim Dae-pyung	Liberty Forward Party
	0 / 300	567,484 Hannara: 181,822 K Party: 156,241 Pro-Park: 134,898 Go! PGP: 60,428 PFU: 19,962 GKP: 14,133	2.66%	extra-parliamentary	in opposition	–	Others
2016	122 / 300	7,960,272	42.8%	30 seats; Minority	in government (2016-2017)	Kim Moo-sung	Saenuri Party
					in opposition (2017-2020)
	0 / 300	163,980 GNP: 86,464 Let's Go! Korea: 27,103 UNP: 16,427 RP: 12,295 Chinbak Yeondae: 11,981 Pro-Ban: 9,710	0.69%	extra-parliamentary	in opposition	–	Others
2020	103 / 300	11,915,277 (Constituency) 9,441,520 (Party-list PR)	41.45% (Constituency) 33.84% (Party-list PR)	8 seats; Minority	in opposition	Hwang Kyo-ahn	United Future Party (Constituency) Future Korea Party (Party-list PR)
	0 / 300	51,885 (FPTP) 574,307 (PR) ORP: 208,719 (PR)/47,299 (FPTP) Pro-Park: 142,747 (PR)/1,884 (FPTP) Saenuri Party: 80,208 (PR)/269 (FPTP) KEP: 48,807 (PR) Let's Go! Korea: 34,012 (PR) Liberty Party: 20,599 (PR) NNPR: 15,998 (PR) NNPP: 12,376 (PR) FCPP: 10,841 (PR)/1,148 (FPTP) GNP: 1,228 (FPTP) RP: 57 (FPTP)	0.18% (FPTP) 2.06% (PR)	extra-parliamentary	in opposition	–	Others
2024	108 / 300	13,179,769 (Constituency) 10,395,264 (Party-list PR)	45.73% (Constituency) 36.67% (Party-list PR)	5 seats; Minority	in government	Han Dong-hoon	People Power Party (Constituency) People Future Party (Party-list PR)
	3 / 300	195,147 (Constituency) 1,025,775 (Party-list PR)	0.67% (Constituency) 3.62% (Party-list PR)	5 seats; Minority	in opposition	Lee Jun-seok	Reform Party
	0 / 300	15,392 (FPTP) 229,066 (PR) GNP: 72,925 (PR) Saenuri Party: 57,210 (PR) FDP: 39,977 (PR)/1,245 (FPTP) ORP: 29,895 (PR)/12,814 (FPTP) NNPR: 10,242 (PR) TF: 9,417 (PR)/1,333 (FPTP) Let's Go! Korea: 7,820 (PR) NNPP: 1,580 (PR)	0.53% (FPTP) 0.81% (PR)	extra-parliamentary	in opposition	–	Others

Local elections

Election	Metropolitan mayor/Governor	Provincial legislature	Municipal mayor	Municipal legislature	Party Name
1995	5 / 15	284 / 875	70 / 230		Democratic Liberal Party
	4 / 15	82 / 875	23 / 230		United Liberal Democrats
1998	6 / 16	224 / 616	74 / 232		Grand National Party
	4 / 16	82 / 616	29 / 232		United Liberal Democrats
2002	11 / 16	467 / 682	136 / 227		Grand National Party
	1 / 16	33 / 682	16 / 227		United Liberal Democrats
2006	12 / 16	557 / 733	155 / 230	1,621 / 2,888	Grand National Party
2010	6 / 16	288 / 761	82 / 228	1,247 / 2,888	Grand National Party
	1 / 16	41 / 761	13 / 228	117 / 2,888	Liberty Forward Party
	0 / 16	3 / 761	0 / 228	19 / 2,888	Pro-Park Coalition
2014	8 / 17	416 / 789	117 / 226	1,413 / 2,898	Saenuri Party
2018	2 / 17	137 / 824	53 / 226	1,009 / 2,927	Liberty Korea Party
2022	12 / 17	540 / 872	145 / 226	1,435 / 2,987	People Power Party

See also

• Conservative political parties in South Korea (in Korean)
• Economic liberalism
• Economic interventionism
• Korean collaborators with Imperial Japan
• Neo-Confucianism
• New Right (South Korea)
• Liberalism in South Korea
  • Liberal conservatism (centre-right)
• October Restoration
• One-People Principle
• Progressivism in South Korea
• Sadaejuui (factions)
• Social conservatism

References

1. 한국 보수주의를 묻는다. Historical Criticism (in Korean) (95). Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 10 September 2011.
2. "한국 보수가 사랑한 '자유'···그들이 외친 '자유'는 따로 있었다 :자유주의란 무엇인가?" [Korean conservatives loved "Liberty" but... But there was a separate "Liberty" they shouted. :What is liberalism?]. Joongang Ilbo (in Korean). 19 April 2020. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
3. "[박찬수 칼럼] '자유'와 민주주의, 리버럴" [[Park Chansoo's column] "Liberal" and democracy, liberalism.]. The Hankyoreh (in Korean). 3 July 2018. Retrieved 30 October 2021. ... '자유'라는 말만큼 요즘 그 의미가 새롭게 다가오는 단어도 드물다. 주말마다 광화문에서 열리는 태극기집회에 가면 '자유민주주의 수호'란 구호를 귀가 따갑도록 들을 수 있다. 그분들이 말하는 자유는 자유한국당의 '자유'와 일맥상통하지만, 1960년 4·19 직후 김수영 시인이 쓴 시의 한 구절 "어째서 자유에는 피의 냄새가 섞여 있는가를"에 나오는 '자유'와는 사뭇 다르다 ... 십수년 전 워싱턴특파원 시절, 가장 곤혹스러운 영어단어 중 하나가 '리버럴'(liberal)이었다. 미국에선 '리버럴' 하면 보통 민주당 지지자나 진보주의자를 뜻하는데 ...[... Few words have a new meaning these days as much as the word "liberal". If you go to the Taegukgi rallies held at Gwanghwamun every weekend, you can hear the slogan "Guardian of Liberal Democracy." The liberal they say is in line with the Liberty Korea Party's "liberal", but it is clearly different from "liberal" in a verse from a poem written by poet Kim Soo-young shortly after 19 April 1960. ... When I was a Washington correspondent decades ago, one of the most embarrassing English words was "liberal". In the United States, "liberal" usually means a Democratic supporter or progressive, but if it is incorporated into a sentence ...]
4. "윤석열이 22번 언급한 그 단어... 자유주의의 역습" [The word that Yoon Seok Yeol mentioned 22 times... The counterattack of liberalism.]. OhmyNews (in Korean). 8 July 2021. Retrieved 4 November 2021. ... 윤희숙 국민의힘 의원은 민주당 의원들이 발의한 사회적경제기본법을 자유주의의 적이라고 규정했고 ...[... Yoon Hee-sook, a member of the People Power Party National Assembly member, defined the Framework Act on Social Economy proposed by Democratic Party of Korea as an enemy of liberalism ...]
5. Kim, Hanna; Cho, Heejung; Jeong, Bokgyo (2011). "Social Networks and Ideological Orientation of South Korean NGOs Involved in the Unification Issues of the Korean Peninsula" . Asian Survey. 51 (5): 844–875. doi:10.1525/as.2011.51.5.844. ISSN   0004-4687. JSTOR   10.1525/as.2011.51.5.844.
6. Kang, Hyun-kyung (2 April 2012). "Is red scare right-wing conspiracy?". The Korea Times . Retrieved 6 May 2012.
7. Jung, Jin-Heon (2016). "The Religious-Political Aspirations of North Korean Migrants and Protestant Churches in Seoul". Journal of Korean Religions. 7 (2): 123–148. ISSN   2093-7288. JSTOR   24892380. On the other side, the contingencies of the ritual seem to become more tactile and controversial in the public spaces of Seoul where one can witness the extent to which "Red complex" has been reinvigorated. In this scheme, political and religious conservatives view liberal and progressive South Koreans as pro-North leftist Reds. It is fairly common that in any public space, such as Seoul City Hall Plaza, one might find politically conservative evangelical Christians holding pickets on which the terms chongbuk chwappal ("pro-North Korea leftist-red") are printed along with the term tongsŏngae ("homosexuality").
8. "Korean Cloak-and-dagger Case Might Be Unparalleled in Scope – tribunedigital-chicagotribune". Chicago Tribune . 29 March 1998. Archived from the original on 11 September 2018.
9. Chae, Haesook (2010). "South Korean Attitudes toward the ROK—U.S. Alliance: Group Analysis" . PS: Political Science and Politics. 43 (3): 493–501. doi:10.1017/S1049096510000727. ISSN   1049-0965. JSTOR   25699357. S2CID   155083075.
10. NAM, HWASOOK (2013). "Progressives and Labor under Park Chung Hee: A Forgotten Alliance in 1960s South Korea" . The Journal of Asian Studies. 72 (4): 873–892. doi:10.1017/S0021911813001113. ISSN   0021-9118. JSTOR   43553233. S2CID   162957725.
11. Kang, David C. (2008). "South Korea's Not-So-Sharp Right Turn". Current History. 107 (710): 256–262. doi: 10.1525/curh.2008.107.710.256 . ISSN   0011-3530. JSTOR   45318249.
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13. 김종인 "호남 홀대해 전국민에 실망"…주호영 "호남에 죄송합니다". The Dong-a Ilbo (in Korean). 23 September 2020. Retrieved 25 September 2020.
14. Bae, Myeong-jae (11 May 2011). 보수단체 "광주학살은 北 특수부대 소행". Kyunghyang Shinmun (in Korean). Retrieved 19 November 2011.

External links

• Review of the 60 years of Korean Conservatism ― Tasks in Leading National Advancement, by Park Hyo-chong
• 보수세력이 친일파 되살리는 까닭은? (Why does the Korean Conservative political camp want to bring back the Chinilpa scene?) – relating to the Korean Broadcasting System's controversial documentaries (in Korean)