Women in France

Last updated
Women in France
L'ouvriere parisienne, avant la guerre, pendant la guerre (1916).jpg
A portrait about the social classes of French women in 1916
General Statistics
Maternal mortality  (per 100,000)8 (2010)
Women in parliament 38.65% (2017)
Women over 25 with secondary education 75.9% (2010)
Women in labour force61.4% (employment rate
OECD definition, 2016) [1]
Gender Inequality Index [2]
Value0.083 (2021)
Rank22nd out of 191
Global Gender Gap Index [3]
Value0.791 (2022)
Rank15th out of 146

The roles of women in France have changed throughout history. In 1944, French women obtained women's suffrage. As in other Western countries, the role of women underwent many social and legal changes in the 1960s and 1970s. French feminism, which has its origins in the French Revolution, has been quite influential in the 20th century with regard to abstract ideology, especially through the writings of Simone de Beauvoir. In addition the article covers scholarly work on topics in history, education, reproductive rights, families, feminism, domestic violence, religion and art.

Contents

History

The traditional role of women in French society involves domestic duties such as housekeeping, preparation of meals in the customary fashion that involves a "succession of courses eaten one at a time", child rearing, harvesting of crops, and tending to farm animals. Upon the onset of the Industrial Revolution in France, women's roles changed with them becoming domestic helpers, factory workers, and washerwomen. That did not generally include women who had bourgeois status, who often became dependent on the financial support of their husbands; such women of upper-class status also had the tendency to send their own children to wet nurses until weaned. [4]

Very slow population growth, especially compared to that of Germany, continued to be a serious issue in the 1920s. Natalists wanted higher marriage rates and higher birth rates among the French, but they also encouraged immigration from the rest of Europe. Propagandists[ who? ] advised women that they were abandoning their family responsibilities under the influence of feminism. One new role was for them to marry immigrants and to refashion them into Frenchmen.[ citation needed ] The Conseil Supérieur de la Natalité campaigned for provisions enacted in the Code de la Famille (1939), which increased state assistance to families with children and required employers to protect the jobs of fathers, even if they were immigrants, during the Great Depression. [5]

Further changes to the status of women in France became apparent in 1944,[ how? ] when French women gained the right to vote. However, it was only in 1965 that they won the right to work without getting permission from their husbands, in addition to the right to open personal bank accounts.[ citation needed ] At present,[ timeframe? ] due to effective health care provision in the country, the life-span of women is at an average of 80.9 years old. So-called "infant allowances" are available to subscribing[ clarification needed ] pregnant women and their newborn children. However, French women who have attained a "suitable level of education" and training are now gaining prominent positions in the fields of business and the engineering industry, particularly in Paris, [6] the capital city of France.

Education

Educational aspirations were rising and becoming increasingly institutionalised to supply the church and the state with the civil servants to serve as their future administrators. Girls were schooled too but not to assume political responsibility. They were ineligible for leadership positions and were generally considered to have an inferior intellect to that of their brothers. France had many small local schools in which working-class children, both boys and girls, learned to read, the better "to know, love, and serve God." The sons and daughters of the noble and bourgeois elites were given gender-specific educations: boys were sent to upper school, perhaps a university, and their sisters, if they were lucky enough to leave the house, would be sent to board at a convent with a vague curriculum.

The Enlightenment challenged that model, but no real alternative was presented for female education. Only through education at home were knowledgeable women formed, usually to the sole end of dazzling their salons. [7] [8]

Reproductive rights and health

Women in France obtained many reproductive rights in the second half of the 20th century. The Neuwirth Act of 1967 authorized contraception. [9] The Veil Law of 1975 legalized abortion. [9] The maternal mortality rate in France is 8.00 deaths/100,000 live births (as of 2010). [10] France's HIV/AIDS rate is 0.4% of adults (aged 15–49) - estimates of 2009. [11] France has been one of the first countries to take legal action against female genital mutilation (which occurs in its immigrant communities) and to prosecute those who perform the practice. [12] [13]

Family life

Percentage of births to unmarried women, in selected countries, including France, 1980 and 2007. As in other Western countries, in France the percentage of children born outside of marriage has increased markedly during the past decades. Percentage of birth to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007.png
Percentage of births to unmarried women, in selected countries, including France, 1980 and 2007. As in other Western countries, in France the percentage of children born outside of marriage has increased markedly during the past decades.

In common with other countries in Mediterranean Europe and of Roman Catholic tradition, French organization of family life has traditionally been conservative and founded on distinct gender roles. Under the Napoleonic Code, married women were subordinated to the husband's authority. [15] Married French women obtained the right to work without their husband's consent in 1965. [16] The paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970 (before that, parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children); and a new reform in 1985 abolished the stipulation that the father had the sole power to administer the children's property. [17] Adultery was decriminalized in 1975. [18] In 1990, a case in which a man had tortured and raped his wife had the Court of Cassation authorise the prosecution of spouses for rape or sexual assault. In 1992, the Court of Cassation convicted a man of the rape of his wife and stated that the presumption that spouses have consented to sexual acts that occur within marriage is valid only if the contrary is not proven. [19] Until 1994, France kept in the French Penal Code the article from 1810 that exonerated rapists if they later married their victim, and in 1994, Law 94-89 criminalized all marital rape.

In 1999, France introduced PACS (a civil union, known as "civil solidarity pact", which can be contracted both by heterosexual and by same-sex couples). In 2005, France reformed its divorce laws, simplifying the procedure, in particular by reducing the separation period, necessary before a divorce in certain circumstances, from 6 years to 2 years (reduced to one year in 2021 [20] ); there are now four types of divorce that can be obtained (divorce by mutual consent; divorce by acceptance; hostile divorce; divorce for separation). [21] A law, passed 4 April 2006, makes rape by a partner (including in unmarried relationships, marriages, and civil unions) an aggravating circumstance in prosecuting rape. [22]

In the past decades, social views on the traditional family have changed markedly, which is reflected in the high proportion of cohabitation and births outside of marriage and in a questioning of traditional expectations regarding the family; in the European Values Study (EVS) of 2008, 35.4% of respondents in France agreed with the assertion "Marriage is an outdated institution". [23]

As of 2023, 63,9% of children were born outside of marriage. [24] In France, legal reforms regarding the "illegitimacy" of children (born outside of marriage) began in the 1970s, but it was only in the 21st century that the principle of equality was fully upheld (through Act no. 2002-305 of 4 March 2002, removing mention of "illegitimacy" — filiation légitime and filiation naturelle and through Law 2009-61 of 16 January 2009). [25] [17] [26] In 2001, France was forced by the European Court of Human Rights to change several laws that were deemed discriminatory, and in 2013, the Court ruled that those changes must be applied also to children born before 2001. [27]

Feminism

International Women's Day march in Paris Manif 8 mars 2020 a Paris (49636597151).jpg
International Women's Day march in Paris

Feminism in France has its origins in the French Revolution. Some famous figures were notable in the 19th century, including Louise Michel, Russian-born Elisabeth Dmitrieff and Nathalie Lemel. French feminism encompasses a branch of feminist theories and philosophies that emerged in the 1970s to the 1990s. This French feminist theory, compared to Anglophone feminism, is distinguished by an approach which is more philosophical and literary, rather than focused on practical issues. Its writings tend to be effusive and metaphorical being less concerned with political doctrines. [28]

Simone de Beauvoir, a French writer, intellectual, existentialist philosopher, political activist and social theorist, is a prominent feminist figure. She is known for her 1949 treatise The Second Sex , a detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism.

Domestic violence

In the 21st century, France has taken many steps in order to combat domestic violence and violence against women, in particular by enacting Law No. 2010-769, of July 9, 2010, on Violence Against Women, Violence Between Spouses, and the Effects of These Types of Violence on Children. [29] France has also ratified the Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence. [30]

France has a long tradition of indulgence towards crimes of passion, which before 1975 were treated legally very leniently. [31] In France, as of 2004 to 2009, former and current partners were responsible for more than 80% of all cases of murders of women. [32]

Religion

The traditional religion of France is Roman Catholicism, but today it is no longer the state religion; and contemporary France is one of the most secular countries in Europe. [33] In France, freedom of religion is guaranteed by the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Republic is based on the principle of laïcité enforced by the 1880s Jules Ferry laws and the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State. Today, France also has a sizable Muslim population. In 2010, France enacted a ban on face covering, prohibiting the wearing of niqab, burqa and similar outfits in public places. In 2014, the European Court of Human Rights upheld the French law, accepting the argument of the French government that the law was based on "a certain idea of living together". [34] [35]

In art

Self-portrait with two pupils, by Adelaide Labille-Guiard, 1785. The two pupils are Marie Capet and Carreaux de Rosemond. Adelaide Labille-Guiard - Self-Portrait with Two Pupils - The Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg
Self-portrait with two pupils, by Adélaïde Labille-Guiard, 1785. The two pupils are Marie Capet and Carreaux de Rosemond.

Particularly noteworthy French women painters during the late 18th century include Adélaïde Labille-Guiard, Anne Vallayer-Coster, and Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun. Vallayer-Coster was prominent for her figural paintings of King Louis XV's daughters and his daughter-in-law Queen Marie Antoinette. Antoinette and the Mesdames de France, also helped Labille-Guiard and Vigée Le Brun obtain admission to the Académie which caused a huge stir among the press, who decided to pit them as rivals against each other. The French Revolution of 1789 created a hostile environment for artists at the time, particularly those supported by the royal family. Vigée Le Brun and Vallayer-Coster, along with many other female artists, fled to other parts of Europe and Russia. Labille-Guiard, however, chose to stay and built a respectable reputation painting the faces of the Revolution. After the Revolution, lesser known women artists were able to use the now wide-open biennial Salon (France) to display their art to a more receptive audience. [36]

After the French Revolution, the number of French women artists sharply declined. [37] It was the monarchy who gave women artists, especially painters, the opportunities to succeed. The Royal Academy was closed down and replaced with an institution that barred the admittance of women. Some female artists close to the monarchy were even executed. [38] It wasn't until the end of the 19th century that a significant number of women were combating stereotypical gender roles. Traditional gender roles hindered prospective French women's artistic careers. [39] While drawing and painting at the amateur level was encouraged as a part of a good bourgeois education, women were not socially permitted to engage in professional careers that were deemed unimportant to society and/or disrupted in the perceived women's role of being a fully functional wife and mother. Many of the artists of this time felt the need to choose between a career and marriage. Also, any female students who did receive training from a skilled artist, and the limited expectations generally had them left with the simplest of artistic tasks. In 1860, Marie Bracquemond, a rising impressionist artist, quipped of her instructor, famous painter Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, "The severity of Monsieur Ingres frightened me... because he doubted the courage and perseverance of a woman in the field of painting... He would assign to them only the painting of flowers, of fruits, of still lifes, portraits and genre scenes." [40]

In the 1870s, life drawing classes became more open to French female students aspiring to be artists in Paris. Perhaps the most successful French woman artist in this era was Rosa Bonheur, who was well known for her animal paintings as well her sculptures. At a time that was dominated by male artistic ability, Bonheur is received very positively and rated very well among all of her peers. [41] In an attempt to reject the gender roles, she cut and maintained a short hairstyle and also requested permission from the police to wear man's pants in order to remain relatively unnoticed in farms and slaughterhouses while she painted animals and studied animal anatomy. [42] Due to concerns like this, women were more likely to embrace movements like the Impressionism that put artistic emphasis on everyday subjects, and not historical themes, that could be painted at home. Despite these hindrances, France was still one of the leading countries for the private tutelage of artistic women at the end of the 18th century. When the École des Beaux-Arts—the primary training facility—eventually succumbed to heavy pressure and began admitting women in 1897, France was no longer the hold-out in providing women with a state-sponsored education. [43]

Women painters built their own support network in Paris. By the 1880, the Union des Femmes Peintres et Sculpteurs played a central role [44] although only a select few women were admitted into quality artistic schools, including the prestigious Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture (Royal Academy). Camille Claudel (1864-1943) was at first censored as she portrayed sexuality in her work. Her response was a symbolic intellectual style that was opposed to the "expressive" approach that was normally attributed to women artists. Her work became well regarded. [45]

With regard to literature, France is well known for the writer George Sand (the pseudonym of Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin). [46] [47]

See also

Related Research Articles

Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that societies prioritize the male point of view and that women are treated unjustly in these societies. Efforts to change this include fighting against gender stereotypes and improving educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's rights</span> Rights claimed for women and girls worldwide

Women's rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls worldwide. They formed the basis for the women's rights movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st centuries. In some countries, these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others, they are ignored and suppressed. They differ from broader notions of human rights through claims of an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls, in favor of men and boys.

The men's rights movement (MRM) is a branch of the men's movement. The MRM in particular consists of a variety of groups and individuals who focus on general social issues and specific government services which they say adversely impact, or in some cases, structurally discriminate against, men and boys. Common topics discussed within the men's rights movement include family law, reproduction, suicides, domestic violence against men, false accusations of rape, circumcision, education, conscription, social safety nets, and health policies. The men's rights movement branched off from the men's liberation movement in the early 1970s, with both groups comprising a part of the larger men's movement.

Sex-positive feminism, also known as pro-sex feminism, sex-radical feminism, or sexually liberal feminism, is a feminist movement centering on the idea that sexual freedom is an essential component of women's freedom. They oppose legal or social efforts to control sexual activities between consenting adults, whether they are initiated by the government, other feminists, opponents of feminism, or any other institution. They embrace sexual minority groups, endorsing the value of coalition-building with marginalized groups. Sex-positive feminism is connected with the sex-positive movement. Sex-positive feminism brings together anti-censorship activists, LGBT activists, feminist scholars, producers of pornography and erotica, among others. Sex-positive feminists believe that prostitution can be a positive experience if workers are treated with respect, and agree that sex work should not be criminalized.

Gender equality, also known as sexual equality or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing different behaviors, aspirations and needs equally, regardless of gender.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adélaïde Labille-Guiard</span> French painter

Adélaïde Labille-Guiard, also known as Adélaïde Labille-Guiard des Vertus, was a French miniaturist and portrait painter. She was an advocate for women to receive the same opportunities as men to become great painters. Labille-Guiard was one of the first women to become a member of the Royal Academy, and was the first female artist to receive permission to set up a studio for her students at the Louvre.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminism in India</span> History of the feminist movement in India

Feminism in India is a set of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and opportunities for women in India. It is the pursuit of women's rights within the society of India. Like their feminist counterparts all over the world, feminists in India seek gender equality: the right to work for equality in wages, the right to equal access to health and education, and equal political rights. Indian feminists also have fought against culture-specific issues within India's patriarchal society, such as inheritance laws.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Lebanon</span>

The roles of women in Lebanon have evolved throughout history. The legal status of women transformed over the 20th century, but traditional patriarchal norms and conservative versions of Islamic law continue to influence women's rights in Lebanon.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Russia</span>

Women in Russia have a rich and varied history during numerous regimes throughout the centuries. Since Russian society is multicultural, the experiences of women in Russia vary significantly across ethnic, religious, and social lines. The life of an ethnic Russian woman can be dramatically different from the life of women of minority groups like the Bashkirs and the life of a woman from a lower-class rural family can be different from the life of a woman from an upper-middle-class urban family. Nevertheless, a common historical and political context provides a framework for speaking about women in Russia in general.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Chile</span> Overview of the status of women in Chile

The lives, roles, and rights of women in Chile have gone through many changes over time. Chilean women's societal roles have historically been impacted by traditional gender roles and a patriarchal culture, but throughout the twentieth century, women increasingly involved themselves in politics and protest, resulting in provisions to the constitution to uphold equality between men and women and prohibit sex discrimination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marie-Gabrielle Capet</span> French painter

Marie-Gabrielle Capet was a French Neoclassical painter. She was born in Lyon on 6 September 1761. Capet came from a modest background and her previous background and artistic training is unknown, but in 1781 she became the pupil of the French painter Adélaïde Labille-Guiard in Paris. She excelled as a portrait painter and her works include oil paintings, watercolours, and miniatures.

Women in Cambodia, due to the influence of the dominant Khmer culture, are traditionally expected to be modest and soft-spoken. They are to be well-mannered, industrious, and hold a sense of belonging to the household. It is expected that they act as the family's caregivers and caretakers, financial administrators, and serve as the "preserver of the home". As financial administrators, women can be identified as having household authority at the familial level. Khmer women are expected to maintain virginity until marriage, become faithful wives, and act as advisors to their husbands. Women in Cambodia have also be known as “light” walkers-- "light" walking and refinement of the Khmer women is further described as being "quiet in […] movements that one cannot hear the sound of their silk skirt rustling".

Feminism in Thailand is perpetuated by many of the same traditional feminist theory foundations, though Thai feminism is facilitated through a medium of social movement activist groups within Thailand's illiberal democracy. The Thai State claims to function as a civil society with an intersectionality between gender inequality and activism in its political spheres.

Feminism in Italy originated during the Italian renaissance period, beginning in the late 13th century. Italian writers such as Moderata Fonte, Lucrezia Marinella, and others developed the theoretical ideas behind gender equality. In contrast to feminist movements in France and United Kingdom, early women's rights advocates in Italy emphasized women's education and improvement in social conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Germany</span> Overview of the rights, role and position of women in Germany

The roles of German women have changed throughout history, as the culture and society in which they lived had undergone various transformations. Historically, as well as presently, the situation of women differed between German regions, notably during the 20th century, when there was a different political and socioeconomic organization in West Germany compared to East Germany. In addition, Southern Germany has a history of strong Roman Catholic influence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Trinidad and Tobago</span> Overview of the status of women in Trinidad and Tobago

Women in Trinidad and Tobago are women who were born in, who live in, or are from Trinidad and Tobago. Depending from which island the women came, they may also be called Trinidadian women or Tobagonian women respectively. Women in Trinidad and Tobago excel in various industries and occupations, including micro-enterprise owners, "lawyers, judges, politicians, civil servants, journalists, and calypsonians." Women still dominate the fields of "domestic service, sales, and some light manufacturing."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminism in Malaysia</span> Social movement in Malaysia

The feminist movement in Malaysia is a multicultural coalition of women's organisations committed to the end of gender-based discrimination, harassment and violence against women. Having first emerged as women's shelters in the mid 1980s, feminist women's organisations in Malaysia later developed alliances with other social justice movements. Today, the feminist movement in Malaysia is one of the most active actors in the country's civil society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminism in South Africa</span>

Feminism in South Africa concerns the organised efforts to improve the rights of the girls and women of South Africa. These efforts are largely linked to issues of feminism and gender equality on one hand, and racial equality and the political freedoms of African and other non-White South African ethnic groups on the other. Early feminist efforts concerned the suffrage of White women, allowing them to vote in elections beginning from 1930s, and significant activism in the 1950s to demand equal pay of men and women. The 1980s were a major turning point in the advancement of South African women, and in 1994, following the end of the apartheid regime, the status of women was bolstered by changes to the country's constitution. Since the end of apartheid, South African feminism is a contribution associated with the liberation and democratization of the country, however, the movement still struggles with the embedded conservative and patriarchal views within some segments of South African society.

<i>Self-Portrait with Two Pupils</i> 1785 painting by Adélaïde Labille-Guiard

Self-Portrait with Two Pupils, Marie-Gabrielle Capet and Marie Marguerite Carreaux de Rosemond is a 1785 self-portrait painting by Adélaïde Labille-Guiard depicting the artist with two of her pupils, Marie-Gabrielle Capet and Marie-Marguerite Carreaux de Rosemond. It is in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminism in Indonesia</span>

Feminism in Indonesia refers to the long history of discourse for gender equality to bring about positive social change in Indonesia. The issues women in Indonesia currently are facing include gender violence, underage marriages, and lack of representation in the political system. Feminism and the women's right movement began during colonial Indonesia under Dutch rule and were spearheaded by the national heroine Kartini, a Javanese noblewoman who advocated for the education of all women and girls regardless of social status. In the early 19th century, women's rights organizations and movements were allowed to developed under Budi Utomo, the first Indonesian Nationalist organization. Modern day Indonesian feminism include and are influenced by both fundamentalist and progressive Islamic women's organizations.

References

  1. ↑ "LFS by sex and age - indicators". Archived from the original on 2019-05-25. Retrieved 2016-11-19.
  2. ↑ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS. Retrieved 8 November 2022.
  3. ↑ "Global Gender Gap Report 2022" (PDF). World Economic Forum. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
  4. ↑ Susan Foley, Women in France Since 1789 (NYU, 2004) pp 235–66.
  5. ↑ Elisa Camiscioli, Elisa. "Producing Citizens, Reproducing the ‘French Race’: Immigration, Demography, and Pronatalism in Early Twentieth‐Century France." Gender & History 13.3 (2001): 593-621.
  6. ↑ Women in Business in France, worldbusinessculture.com Archived 2017-05-03 at the Wayback Machine
  7. ↑ Carolyn C. Lougee, "'Noblesse,' Domesticity, and Social Reform: The Education of Girls by Fenelon and Saint-Cyr", History of Education Quarterly 1974 14(1): 87-113
  8. ↑ Linda L. Clark, Schooling the Daughters of Marianne: Textbooks and the Socialization of Girls in Modern French Primary Schools (SUNY Press, 1984) online.
  9. 1 2 "Changes in the role of women in French society - France.fr". Archived from the original on 2015-09-28. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
  10. ↑ "The World Factbook". Archived from the original on 2015-04-18. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
  11. ↑ "The World Factbook". Archived from the original on 2014-12-21. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
  12. ↑ "France a pioneer in criminalization of female genital mutilation - France in the United Kingdom - la France au Royaume-Uni". Archived from the original on 2015-04-04. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
  13. ↑ "OHCHR | Human Rights Council discusses the identification of good practices in combatting female genital mutilation".
  14. ↑ "Changing Patterns of Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States". CDC/National Center for Health Statistics. May 13, 2009. Retrieved September 24, 2011.
  15. ↑ "Women's rights and Children's rights" (PDF). Unicef. Retrieved 2023-09-29.
  16. ↑ "Women in France" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
  17. 1 2 "NATIONAL REPORT: FRANCE" (PDF). Retrieved 2023-09-29.
  18. ↑ "L'Adultère en un clic : La justice saisie contre Gleeden". 18 February 2015.
  19. ↑ Simon, Rita James (May 2001). A comparative perspective on major social problems. Lexington Books. p. 20. ISBN   978-0-7391-0248-0.
  20. ↑ "What procedure in case of a divorce in France? | Notaires de France". 7 December 2020.
  21. ↑ "Divorce in France". Angloinfo France. Angloinfo . Retrieved 2016-06-14.
  22. ↑ Bensussan, P. (2009). "Marital rape according to French law: Desire, need and consent". Sexologies. 18 (3): 182–185. doi:10.1016/j.sexol.2009.04.001. ISSN   1158-1360.
  23. ↑ "Unknown".[ permanent dead link ] See for each country: Variable Description - Family - Q 45.
  24. ↑ "Naissances hors mariage".
  25. ↑ "Autorité parentale - Définition".
  26. ↑ "LOI n° 2009-61 du 16 janvier 2009 ratifiant l'ordonnance n° 2005-759 du 4 juillet 2005 portant réforme de la filiation et modifiant ou abrogeant diverses dispositions relatives à la filiation (1)".
  27. ↑ "CASE OF FABRIS v. FRANCE". European Court of Human Rights. Retrieved 2023-09-29.
  28. ↑ Moi, T. (1987). French feminist thought: a reader . Blackwell. ISBN   978-0-631-14973-6.
  29. ↑ "LOI n° 2010-769 du 9 juillet 2010 relative aux violences faites spécifiquement aux femmes, aux violences au sein des couples et aux incidences de ces dernières sur les enfants (1)".
  30. ↑ "Full list - Treaty Office - www.coe.int". Treaty Office.
  31. ↑ "Common Ground for Europeans and Muslims Among Them". 28 May 2008.
  32. ↑ smallarmssurvey.org
  33. ↑ "Biotechnology Report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-06-24. Retrieved 2015-02-24.
  34. ↑ "France's burqa ban upheld by human rights court". TheGuardian.com . July 2014.
  35. ↑ "European Court upholds French full veil ban". BBC News. July 2014.
  36. ↑ Auricchio, L. (2004, October 1). Eighteenth-Century Women Painters in France. Retrieved from http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/18wa/hd_18wa.htm
  37. ↑ Laurence Madeline, Women Artists in Paris, 1850-1900 (2017) pp 1-24.
  38. ↑ Wolff, R. (2012, March 4). Feminism in Old France. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204795304577223542287084590 (subscription required)
  39. ↑ Charlotte Yeldham, Women Artists in Nineteenth-Century France and England (Garland, 1984).
  40. ↑ Myers, Nicole. "Women Artists in Nineteenth-Century France". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/19wa/hd_19wa.htm (September 2008)
  41. ↑ Rosa Bonheur. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/realism/Rosa-Bonheur.html
  42. ↑ Boime, Albert (December 1981). "The case of Rosa Bonheur: Why should a woman want to be more like a man?". Art History. 4 (4): 384–409. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8365.1981.tb00733.x.
  43. ↑ Delia Gaze, Maja Mihajlovic, and Leanda Shrimpton, Dictionary of Women Artists (1997) p. 89
  44. ↑ Tamar Garb, Sisters of the Brush: Women's Artistic Culture in Late Nineteenth-Century Paris (1994).
  45. ↑ Claudine Mitchell, “Intellectuality and Sexuality: Camille Claudel, The Fin de Siecle Sculptress,” Art History 12#4 (1989): 419–447.
  46. ↑ Belinda Jack, George Sand: A Woman's Life Writ Large (1999).
  47. ↑ Sonya Stephens, History of Women's Writing in France (2000).

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.